Higashi Shinbun 東新聞

2012-01-06T19:24:00.018+01:00

The prince and the heroine:

Hodong and Nakrang

Korea, 32 AD: the peninsula is divided in Three Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. King Daemusin (대해주류왕, 大解朱留王, ”Great Holy Warrior King”, 18-44) of Northern Goguryeo Kingdom, after resisted back

the Chinese invasion attempt, sent his sixteen years old son prince Hodong (호동왕자) to conquer the Chinese commandery (郡, jùn) Lelang and its capital city Nakrang-guyok (樂浪, 락랑) which is at the present time a district of Pyongyang. Nevertheless Nakrang’s resistance is very strong also because of the help of magic drum Ja Myung Go (자명고, 自鳴鼓) which wakes up the city and encourages soldiers to defence. All these occurrences are reported in Samguk Sagi (삼국사기, 三國史記, “History of the Three Kingdoms”) completed in 1145 by Kim Busik (김부식, 金富軾).

While the war is in a stalemate, a sudden and burning passion is born between young prince Hodong and the beautiful princess of Nakrang (낙랑공주). Prince Hodong, advised by his father king Daemusin, asks Nakrang to tear the drum Ja Myung Go and she, driven by loves’s boldness, obeys her lover and the city falls into enemy’s hands. And so the king of Nakrang Choiree orders the killing of her daughter because of her betrayal. Betrayal against her homeland and father but not against her beloved Hodong who is victorious in the battle but who is in very truth a big loser.

This story is up till now well-known in Korea, above all for the female spirit of Nakrang, so much faithful to Hodong as to betray her own father and homeland. Even if this legend is known as “Prince Hodong’s tale”, actually the real main character is the strong and fearless Nakrang. Quite the opposite, Hodong seems to place his love and Nakrang herself after his father Daemusin and prince Hodong obeys his father’s lust for conquest.

Recently the TV drama ”Princess Ja Myung” (자명고, Ja Myung Go) broadcasted in 2009 by SBS has been dedicated to princess Nakrang’s story with actors Jung Ryeo-won (정려원, 鄭麗媛) in princess’ Nakrang role and Jung Kyung Ho (정경호) in Hodong’s role.

Ballet “Prince Hodong” by Korea National Ballet (대한민국 국립발레단) has been inspired by the story reported in Samguk Sagi as well. The ballet was originally created in 1988 by Sung-nam Lim (임성남), first artistic director of Korean National Ballet. “Prince Hodong” is an internationally successful staging which blends together Western and Far Eastern theatrical traditions. In this performance we can see some parts of classical ballet and lots of references to Korean traditional dances. For example the dance of Nakrang together with her ladies-in-waiting is like a piece of salpuri (살풀이) and the scene in which the princess is wrapped in a written handscroll reminds of buchaechum (부채춤), the traditional Korean fan dance.

Nakrang continues to be a symbol also for present-day Korean woman, who is passionate and forceful even if now she is more a businesswoman than a romantic lover.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

(자명고, Ja Myung Go, SBS drama music performed by Baek Ji Young, 백지영 www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEO9LLeeUAI)

2011-06-27T09:37:00.029+02:00

The Dragon’s claw

The most famous companies

and logos of Korea in the world

Since 70s to 90s of twentieth century the Miracle on the Han River happens in Korea (한강의 기적, Hangangeui Kijeok). Economy of Korean peninsula booms and Korea joins the streak of Four Asian Tigers or Asian Dragons together with

Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore (아시아의 네 마리 용, 亞洲四小龍). Economic miracle begins during the government of Park Chung-hee (박정희, 朴正熙 1917 – 1979) who ruled since 1963 to 1979 and 1998 Seoul Olympics are the miracle’s peak. The entire world in that occasion could know the power and liveliness of Korean economy based on chaebol (재벌, “monopoly, business family”) business conglomerates which are similar to Japanese zaibatsu (財閥). As it is usual in Far Eastern conglomerates, chaebol deal with many fields, from electronics to automotive, from construction to finance, from chemistry to food and shipbuilding. Korean shipyards are until nowadays the engine of Korean economy. Korea is leader for the value of produced ships and it was the biggest producer of ships since 2004 until when China recently surpassed it. The most important chaebol have branches exclusively involved in shipbuilding like Hyundai Heavy Industries, Samsung Heavy Industries, the former Daewoo Heavy Industries. STX (STX그룹) is an

industrial giant specialized in shipbuilding only and it owns also shipyards around the world, Europe included. Samsung (삼성그룹, 三星, “Three Stars”) is one of the most famous Korean brands in the world. Samsung was founded in 1938 in Daegu by Lee Byung-chull (이병철, 李秉喆, 1910 – 1987) and at the beginning it was a trading company in food, insurance and retail business. At the end of 60s Samsung begins its adventure in electronics and nowadays it is a giant of world economy with a turnover like the 12% of Korean GDP. Its products range over a wide variety of subjects, from household appliances to mobile phones, from computers to televisions, LCD screens and air conditioners. Samsung has also a construction branch called Samseong Mulsan (삼성물산) which was involved in the erection of some of the highest skyscrapers of the world like

Taipei 101 in Taiwan and Petronas Towers in Malaysia. In automotive field, Samsung Motor was almost entirely sold to Renault which owns the 80%. Samsung logo is today a blue oval with the company name in white letters nevertheless the old logos showed the three stars of the name Samsung. The other giant of Korean electronics is LG Electronics (LG전자). LG was founded in 1958 from the union of the companies Lucky dealing with housewares and Goldstar dealing with appliances. The name LG derived from the initials L and G of two companies even if now LG is read as the motto “Life’s Good” and its logo is a red circle with L and G letters which form a stylized smiling face. Automotive industry is the other pillar of Korean economy. Daewoo (대우, 大宇, “Great Universe”) was one of the biggest producers of motor vehicles of the world. After 1997 Asian financial crisis it was sold to American General Motors. Hyundai (현대, 現代, “Modernity”), founded in 1947 in Ulsan, was in the beginning a construction company and then started to deal with electronics, finance and

above all automotive. Its logo is an italic H circumscribed in a silver oval. Hyundai acquired Kia Motors (기아자동차 주식회사, 起亞自動車株式會社, “Rising out of Asia”) in 1998 and its name became Hyundai Kia Automotive Group (현대자동차 그룹). Nowadays it is the fourth world's leading producer of motor vehicles and the second in Asia after Japanese Toyota. Hanjin (한진, 韓進, “Progress of Korea”), founded in 1945, is one of world’s leaders of logistics and oceanfreight and it owns many ships and containers. Its logo is a light blue circle with an inscribed round H which slightly resembles the shape of Korean national symbol taegeuk (태극, 太極). Korean Air Lines (대한항공, 大韓航空), the flag carrier founded in 1962, is in Hanjin group too and its red and blue logo is very similar to taegeuk as well. The only Korean competitor of Korean Air is Asiana Airlines (아시아나 항공, 아시아나 航空), founded in 1988, which connects Korea with many destinations above all in Far East. Lotte (롯데그룹, Japanese 株式会社ロッテ) is a leading company in food and confectionery both in Korea and in Japan and Asia. It was founded in 1948 in Tokyo by Shin Kyuk-Ho (신격호, 辛格浩) also known as Shigemitsu Takeo (重光武雄)

with Japanese name. Lotte's ginseng-flavoured chewing gums are famous not only in Far East. Lotte’s logo is a red circle with a L divided into three vertical wavy in lower part segments. The biggest and oldest Korea’s department store is Shinsegae (신세계, 新世界, “New World”), which was originally the Korean branch of Japanese department store Mitsukoshi (株式会社三越) opened in 1930 in Gyeongseong (경성, 京城, “Capital City”), old name of Seoul during the Japanese rule. Shinsegae’s logo is a red flower with seven petals. Seven is one of the lucky numbers in Korea like in China and Japan. The “claw” of Korean companies operating in many fields are widespread across the world and they bring Korea from East to all foreign countries.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

2011-03-18T10:58:00.055+01:00

Strength that sprouts from grace

Woman in Korean history

Courage, beauty, genius

Woman’s role in Korea nowadays is the fruit of strong and tenacious Korean female nature. From dawn of history in Korea there are some emblematic female figures which are examples of courage, devotion, beauty and genius even in a society generally not much open to women. Confucianism – Korea’s main religion together with Buddhism - is normally not favourably disposed towards women. Instead Shamanism gives more importance to women and mudang (무당, hanja 巫堂) shaman is generally female. In some villages of the southern island of Jeju-do there are matriarchal societies leaded by haenyo (해녀, 海女, “sea women”), very skilled fisherwomen of seafood in the cold waters of the island. They are the real heads of the family and they let their husbands do housework. Queen Seondeok of Silla (선덕여왕, 善德女王, 632-647) shines in the end of Three Kingdoms period (57 BC – 668 AD). Samguk Yusa (삼국유사, 三國遺事, “Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms”, completed in 1280) - the historical work by Buddhist monk Il-yeon (일연, 一然,1206-1289) - tells that Seondeok promoted the building of the astronomical observatory Cheomseongdae (첨성대, “stars-gazing tower”) near the capital Gyeongju. Seondeok commissioned also one of the largest Korean buildings ever built, the nine-story wooden pagoda of Hwangryongsa (황룡사, “Golden/Yellow Dragon Temple” or “Imperial Dragon Temple”) nowadays collapsed. Both Samguk Yusa and Samguk Sagi (삼국사기, 三國史記 “Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms”, completed in 1145) by Kim Bu-sik (김부식, 金富軾, 1075 – 1151) tell of an anecdote about Seondeok’s cleverness: when Chinese Emperor Tang Taizong (唐太宗, 626 – 649) gave young princess Seondeok’s father Jinpeyong a case of peony seeds and a painting representing the peony flowers, she looking at the painting said that peonies were without doubt wonderful flowers but lacking in fragrance, since neither butterflies nor bees were depicted on the flowers. In 2009 MBC television produced a serial dedicated to Queen Seondeok performed by actress Lee Yo-Won (이요원, 李瑤媛). Kisaeng (기생) – female entertainers of royal court and of nobility yangban (양반) – were women endowed with great culture, artistic talent and extraordinary beauty. First kisaeng appeared probably at the beginning of Goryeo period (918 - 1392) or maybe before in Unified Silla period (668 - 935) even if their earliest mention is at the beginning of 11th century. Art of kisaeng was the fruit of a strict and careful school education which lasted no less than 3 years and the entertainers had to know not only music, dance and poetry but also embroidery and medicine. Seoul excelled in number of kisaeng whereas Pyongyang shined at beauty and ability of entertainers. Kisaeng lived in common houses in the central districts of cities, often close to marketplaces. Career of kisaeng peaked normally when they were 16 or 17 years old and it declined yet when they were 25 years old. The age limit for kisaeng was 50 years although very few of them worked until this age. Normally they were members of lowest caste of commoners cheonmin (천민) even if their manners were refined and delicate since they related always to nobility. Kisaeng’s daughters were groomed for being entertainers as well and as Japan’s geisha who had a patron called danna kisaeng had strong relationship with gibu who aided them economically too. As Japanese geisha also kisaeng were source of inspiration for writers and painters who sang of their artistic skills and portrayed their beauty. The main character of Chunhyangga (춘향가) - a pansori written in 1870 by Shin Jae-hyo (신재효, 申在孝,1817 - 84) – is in fact a kisaeng and painter Hyewon (혜원, 蕙園, 1778 – 1813 ca.) in his famous Portrait of a Beauty (미인도, 美人圖) depicts just a kisaeng. Nevertheless there is a big difference between geisha and kisaeng. In Japan female entertainers are never involved in political affairs instead in Korea they are often implicated in important events due to their profession. For example kisaeng were offered to Chinese ambassadors as presents during their visits to Korea. Kisaeng themselves were the first to mess with foreign generals of occupying armies in wartime. During Japanese invasions of Korea also known as Imjin War (임진왜란, 壬辰倭亂, “Japanese Invasion of the Imjin Year”, 1592 - 1598) kisaeng Nongae (논개, 論介) distinguished herself by her devotion to Korea. In 1593 she embraced Japanese general Keyamura Rokusuke (毛谷村六助) and together with him cast herself into the river Nam which flows under the pavilion Chokseongnu in Jinju, in the South of Korean peninsula. Every may the Nongae Festival is held in her honour and in Jinju castle there is still the “rock of righteousness” Uiam (의암, 義巖) from where Nongae jumped down to save her country from Japanese invaders. Some kisaeng are very famous also nowadays for their artistic skills and beauty. Yi Mae-chang (이매창, 李梅窓, 1573-1610) was very skilful at playing geomungo (거문고), the string instrument of Korean tradition very similar to Chinese gunqin and to Japanese koto. The most famous is without dubt Hwang Jin-i (황진이, 黃眞伊, 1520 ca. – 1560 ca.). Her figure inspired many contemporary novels, like that of North-Korean writer Hong Sok-jung (홍석중, 洪錫中), and a successful drama produced by KBS in 2006 and performed by actress Ha Jiwon (하지원, 河智媛) who played the character of beautiful Jin-i. Bright Moon Myeongwol (명월, 明月) – the name of Hwang Jin-i as a kisaeng – wrote many breathtaking sijo poems which make her one of major poets of Far East. Her verses are almost always about love and they are often full of melancholy for her lover who has left or is away or for night waiting for beloved’s arrival. Here is one of her most significant sijo: 동짓달 기나긴 밤을 한 허리를 버혀 내어 / 춘풍 니불 아래 서리서리 넣었다가 / 어론님 오신 날 밤이어든 굽이굽이 펴리라 – Oh that I might cut in two to waistline the long midwinter night / that I might roll it up and put it under the warm quilt of spring breeze / and I will unroll it in the night when my beloved arrives. In another sijo Jin-i plays on her pen-name Bright Moon and she asks her lover to spend the night with her: […]일도창해(一到滄海)하면 다시 오기 어려우니 / 명월(明月)이 만공산(滿空山)할 제 쉬어간들 어떠리 - […] when you will venture out to sea it will be hard to go back / the bright moon is over the bare mountain, how about remaining here to rest? Gracefulness and refinement of these verses are only one side of Korean woman’s soul. Passion for lover is often the mirror of love for homeland. In fact in Korea there are lots of examples of female patriotism. Empress Myeongseong also known as Queen Min (명성황후, 明成皇后, 1873 - 1895) would have formed an alliance between Korea and Russia to hold back Japanese influence on Korean peninsula. For this reason on the 8th of October 1895 she was killed by some killers hired by Japanese lieutenant general Miura Gorō (三浦梧楼, 1847 - 1926) in the Okhoru pavilion (옥호루, 玉壺樓) of Gyeongbokgung palace. This episode is known as Eulmi Incident (을미사변, 乙未事變) in Korean history. Twenty-five years later student Yu Kwan-sun (유관순, 柳寬順,1902 - 1920) protested against Japanese occupation in Tapgol Park of Seoul (탑골 공원, 塔골公園, “Pagoda Park”) waving Korean flag during the days of Samil Movement (삼일 운동, 三一運動, “March First Movement”) and for this reason she was arrested and then killed. Empress Sunjeong (순정효황후, 純貞孝皇后, 1894 - 1966) – spouse of Korea’s last emperor Sunjong Yunghui (순종 융희제, 純宗隆熙帝, 1907 – 1910) – withstood violence of North Korea to the last during Korean War (1950 – 1953) and she escaped to Busan on foot when she had no option but to leave Changdeok Palace. Achievements of woman’s condition in Korean society became very important above all after 1948 thanks to equality regarding state and laws and after 1985 thanks to Equal Employment Act which set parity between men and women in working world. Very significant achievements which recently made percentage of female employment very high in Korea. However these successes are the fruit of brave and graceful character of women of The Land of the Morning Calm and they could have been impossible without the noble example of heroines of the past.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

(Hwang Jin-i KBS drama music performed by Choi Hie-jin, 최혜진 www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHoPyE59nys&feature=related)

2011-02-24T10:26:00.022+01:00

Japon mon amour

.
How France discovered Japan

and spread Japonisme through the world

«These simple Japanese people live in nature as they were flowers themselves ». We read these words in a touched letter by Van Gogh to his brother Théo. It was in 1888 and the coloured palette of the artist was lighted up by the sun of Provence so much far from Japanese sun, the Rising Sun which at that time was beginning to set in open and “conquered” Japan where trade and traders from the West ran about. Van Gogh didn’t ever go to Japan. Also, Bracquemond, Manet, Monet, Degas didn’t go to Japan even if they were the first people in the mid-19th century to be suffering from that illness with no recovery now called Japonisme in art. Nevertheless distance is a mutual condition of man not of artist and above all for Impressionists.
Since some years before the end of sakoku (鎖国, "locked country") – the isolationism of Japan during Edo-Tokugawa period (1603 - 1867) – the first Japanese ukiyo-e (浮世絵, “pictures of the floating world") woodblock prints began to circulate in Paris. These prints were some of the most important detonators of coloured explosion of Impressionism both for portraits and for landscape paintings. Japanese art was immediate and refined in the eyes of Impressionists and it was profoundly and totally suitable for their painting style. Artists and patrons of Impressionism were the first collectors of Japanese prints and crafts objects. Japanese prints which Monet began to collect since 1871 in his house of Giverny constitute nowadays one of the most significant collections of Japan art. In works by Monet there are so many references to Japan. He had been above all enchanted by marvellous and dreamlike red humpback Japanese bridges called in Japanese taikobashi (太鼓橋, “drum bridge”) or poetically tsukibashi (月橋, “moon bridge”). In the garden of Giverny there is a green Japanese bridge which is not red as Japanese bridges are. This bridge is like an apparition which develops and changes in half-light in Monet’s last paintings.
Anyway France’s love for Japan is not only concerning art and Japanese prints but it’s also about literature, music and cinema and it originated many profound and reciprocal influences among Japanese and French artists. This mutual love between France and Japan concerns even food, fashion, language.
France loves Japan a lot. One of the biggest manga café in the world is placed in Paris. French people are in fact the main readers of manga comics after Japanese people. Japonisme is still alive and it turns to new models with the same old emotion.
Japan loves France as well. A perfect copy of Monet’s garden in his house in Giverny was built at Kitagawa, a small village of Shikoku Island…and to think that French artist got inspired just by traditional Japanese gardens to make his own garden! Tokyo Tower (東京タワー) in Japan’s capital is modeled after Eiffel Tower and it is almost a coloured copy made in Japan six meters higher than the French model.
Musical Impressionism by Claude Debussy partially took its cue from Japanese pentatonic music. On the cover of the 1905 edition of La Mer there is in fact the image of The Great Wave off Kanagawa (神奈川沖浪裏, Kanagawa Oki Nami Ura, 1829–32) by Katsushika Hokusai (葛飾北斎, 1760 - 1849), a copy of which is also in Monet’s house in Giverny. Recently in Japan renowned singer and actor Miwa Akihiro (美輪明宏) performed many chansons in Japanese like for example "Non, je ne regrette rien" by immortal Edith Piaf.
Takada Kenzō (高田賢三) – the most important Japanese fashion designer and author of perfumes –moved to Paris when he was very young and opened his first boutique Jungle Jap there in 1970. After all Paris and Provence are among the main dream places of romantic Japanese people. Just the same Japanese tourists who don’t know at all to look a little at themselves while they gape at Impressionist paintings.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

(Me Que Me Que performed by Miwa Akihiro www.youtube.com/watch?v=GsqqXmx4qLQ)

2011-01-16T21:55:00.088+01:00

Yamato Nadeshiko

.
The image of woman in Japan
between the real and ideal

A while ago in Japan there was this way of saying: hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi (花は桜木人は武士, "cherry blossom among flowers, samurai among men"). Therefore ideal man was samurai. However,nowadays samurai do not exist anymore. What about ideal woman, then? Japanese woman was Yamato Nadeshiko (大和撫子, “Japanese Dianthus superbus”), a very delicate and snow-white flower with silk-like petals. As this flower which grows even on the mountains, woman should be delicate yet powerful, beautiful yet humble, faithful and wise. She should be Good Wife, Wise Mother (良妻賢母, ryōsai-kenbo) according to the words of philosopher Nakamura Masanao (中村正直, 1832 - 1891). Is this dream woman still alive in Japan nowadays?

They say Japan is a male chauvinist country. It's quite so if we look at Japan from the outside. Nevertheless if we look inside we will discover a different reality that is woman has been the heart of Japanese culture and she is like that still now. Japanese woman has influenced religion, literature and art of Japan with her delicate and fascinating figure. Female beauty is well described by main Japanese writers up to novelists of twentieth century. Some of female main characters of modern Japanese literature are Kyoko of The inn of "hina" dolls (雛の宿, 1953) by Mishima Yukio - mysterious and evanescent as an hinamatsuri doll - the woman who "lends" her one arm to a man all through the night as an idol worship in One Arm (片腕, 1933) by Kawabata Yasunari, the disquieting and desperate woman of Sand woman (砂の女, 1962) by Abe Kōbō.

Anyway women portrayed in passages of the books by Tanizaki Jun'ichirō represent the most profound image of unattainable and disquieting mystery of female soul. Sadistic Fumiko of Fumiko's feet (富美子の足, 1919), whimsical and seductive Naomi of A Fool's Love (痴人の愛, 1924), the mother figure of Longing for Mother (母を恋ふる記, 1919) who is charming as a luring nocturnal fox. All Tanizaki women are beautiful and thinly cruel to their lover. They are downright megami (女神), Shinto goddess to be worshiped.

Many ukiyo-e artists depicted bijinga (美人畫), pictures of ideal beauties who were often women of brothels of Yoshiwara quarter in Edo. Kitagawa Utamaro is perhaps the artist who pursued more than others the ideal of female beauty. In his well-known woodblock print Beauty in front of mirror in close-up we can see the neck hairline (項, unaji) which is one of women's most attractive body parts. Kimono wraps the female body up and it uncovers nape and feet only. Bijinga themes are continued nowadays by photographer Hoshino Komaro (星野小麿) who gets inspired by geisha and their body parts in his works like Ukiyo-e Kuzushi (浮世絵くずし, 1984).

Geisha generally make up nape in a W shape. Nape should be “similar to the shape of the moon” and “smooth as a pearl” according to Bijo sanjūnisō (美女三十二相, “The 32 Distinguishing Marks of Beautiful Woman”) by Hasegawa Settei (1819 – 1882), a printed work which depicts the 32 characteristics of ideal female body. Thirty-three is the same number of Lakkhaṇa (三十二相, sanjūnisō), the physical characteristics of the Buddha. Therefore female beauty is compared to divinity.

The idea of female beauty as divine essence underlies Tanizaki's works. In the novel Diary of a Mad Old Man (瘋癲老人日記, 1961-62) old Tokusuke is so attracted to his daughter-in-law Satsuko as to wish to have her footprints carved on his gravestone as the sacred footprints of the Buddha (仏足石, bussokuseki) in Yakushiji Temple at Nara. There are many fine passages in Tanizaki's books about female feet beauty. For example in The Floating Bridge of Dreams (夢浮橋, 1959) goldfishes come closer to woman's feet nearly to kiss them.
According to Bijo sanjūnisō ideal foot shoud have “the back like a snow heap” i. e. small and snow-white. Kuki Shūzō too in his book The Structure of "Iki" (「いき」の構造, 1930) affirms that nape and feet are the main body parts of female beauty since these parts only shine trough kimono. The most elegant and mysterious beauty is the hidden or veiled one and not the bare and exposed one according to aesthetic principle of iki (粋, translatable “style, purity, essence”). This is the classic seduction of Japanese woman. That's why geisha used to make up nape and to be barefoot even in hard winter. Their feet should show the same bright whiteness and delicacy as the snow stomped by their geta sandals. That’s also why female dancers of Nihon Buyō (日本舞踊) – Japanese most ancient dance which has been invented by Shinto goddess Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto (天宇受売命, 天鈿女命) as the Kojiki tells us – dance barefoot without tabi socks and beat rhythm with bare feet.
Whiteness of skin is considered the main characteristic of female beauty since the Heian period (794 - 1185). Japanese women used many substances to get the ideal snow-white skin (色白, irojiro). The most important cosmetics were a rice flour-based white face powder and uguisu no fun (うぐいすの粉, “Japanese Bush Warbler feces”) that is a peculiar material made of guano of Japanese nightingale uguisu which was used as make-up remover too. Light-skinned face clashes in a beautiful way with flaming red lipstick on lips and above all whiteness clashes with black-coloured teeth (お歯黒, ohaguro, "black teeth") which were fashionable among married women since Heian period or perhaps before it until Meiji period (1868 – 1912). Ohaguro was made from tannic powder of gallnuts and kanemizu (かねみず) obtained by fermenting iron filings in an acidic mixture of tea, vinegar and rice wine. Ohaguro made open mouth more charming since it seemed more profound and dark. Nowadays ohaguro almost disappeared in Japan though it still lingers in some parts of South China and of Southeast Asia.
Anyway ideal woman is always far removed from reality, she is an unattainable abstraction. Nowadays as Japanese man lost his proud and brave samurai soul, Japanese woman is not Yamato Nadeshiko anymore. Her typical white colour gave place to other colours up to the recent desecrating fashion of ganguro (顔黒, “Black Face”) who make their skin tanned and their hair blonde or orange. Ganguro girls would like to show their deep detachment from tradition and from the past with black skin colour.
Faded are now the days of pure beauty and of flower woman. Nevertheless there is still a silent and mysterious charm in Japanese womanhood. Something that Japanese young women hide under western style clothing and exaggerated make-up. There is still the "spell of a woman" as the title of the song Onna no Jūmon (女の呪文) by singer Kaji Meiko (梶芽衣子). She played as actress in many yakuza movies produced by Toei (東映株式会社) in the 1970s. In these films she plays the impenetrable character of a forceful and tremendous woman though tender-hearted. As tradition can't die out, nadeshiko flower of Yamato is still alive with its petals just a bit withered away.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

大和撫子

日本女性の理想と現実

「花は桜木、人は武士」（花と言えば桜、人と言えば武士）と言われるように、かつては、理想的な日本人と言えば武士（侍）であった。しかし侍はもういない。それでは日本女性はどうか。日本女性と言えば、絹のような花弁を持つ繊細で純白な花・大和撫子であった。山間部でもしっかりと根を下ろして育つ大和撫子のように、日本女性は強く美しく、同時に謙虚で貞節、賢くあるべきであった。つまり、哲学者・中村正直の言葉を借りると、「良妻賢母」である。では、この日本女性像は今の日本でも見られるのだろうか？
日本は男性社会だと言われている。日本を外から見れば確かにそう思うかもしれない。しかし内側に入っていくと、外から見るのとはまた違う現実があることに気付く。日本文化の中心にいたのは常に女性であったし、今でもそうだ。繊細で魅力的な日本女性こそが、日本の宗教や文学、芸術に影響を与えてきたのだ。文豪の作品から20世紀の小説家の作品まで、日本文学では女性の美しさが繰り返し描かれてきた。現代文学で描かれている代表的な女性としては、三島由紀夫作『雛の宿』（1953年）に出てくる、どこか雛人形のように神秘的で儚い女性や、川端康成作『片腕』（1933年）に出てくる、自分の片腕を崇拝する男に一夜だけ片腕を「貸し与える」女性、更には安部公房作『砂の女』（1962年）の、打ちひしがれながらも他人を不安にさせる寡婦などが挙げられる。
一方、谷崎潤一郎が描いてきたのは、どこか他人を不安にさせるような神秘性を持った女性で、それは辿り着くことができない女性の心の奥底を象徴する存在でもある。『富美子の足』（1919年）のサディスティックな富美子や、『痴人の愛』（1942年）の気まぐれで、人を誘惑する直美、『母を恋ふる記』（1919年）に出てくる、人の心を奪うという夜の狐のような魅惑的な母親などがそうである。谷崎の作品に登場するあらゆる女性は、美しいが自分の愛人に対してひどく残酷である。彼女らはまさしく崇拝の対象である女神なのだ。
また、多くの浮世絵の絵師たちが「美人畫」を描いてきた。美人画には理想的な女性が描かれており、そのモデルとなったのは江戸の遊郭吉原の女であることが多い。浮世絵師の中でも特に、理想的な女性像を追求したのが喜多川歌麿であった。歌麿の『鏡美人』に描かれている女性は、着物で身体全体を覆いながらも首すじ（項）と足を顕わに人目にさらしている。これは、女性の身体のうち最も魅力的だと見なされていた項を強調するためである。写真家である星野小麿は、この美人画のテーマを現代に引き継ぎ、芸者の身体から着想を得た『浮世絵くずし』のような作品を生み出している。かつて芸者は逆さ富士の形に項を描いていた。長谷川雪堤の『美女三十二相』に見られる「月のような」「真珠のように滑らかな」項である。『美女三十二相』は特徴的な女性の身体を描いた三十二枚の美人画であるが、この32という数字は、仏陀（悟りを得る人）に成り得る人の人体的特徴を32にまとめた「仏の三十二相」と同数である。女性美が人智を超えた仏の特徴に準えられているのだ。
『瘋癲老人日記』（1961-62年）で、谷崎は女性美を神のように崇めている。主人公の督助は、息子の嫁・颯子の性的な魅力に惹かれるあまり、自分の墓にまるで奈良の薬師寺の仏足石のように颯子の足型を刻み込もうとする。このように谷崎の作品では、女性の足首の美しさが強調されている。例えば『夢浮橋』（1959年）では、金魚が女性の足首にキスをするように纏わりついてくる。ここで描かれている足首は、『美女三十二相』が言う「降り積もった雪のようになめらかな曲線」を持つ、小柄で純粋無垢な、いわば理想的な足首である。
『「いき」の構造』で九鬼周造は、着物で覆われず剥き出しになる項と足首こそが女性の身体で最も重要だと明言している。この「いき」の美学的規範によると、最も洗練され最も神秘的な美とは、隠された美、何かで覆われた美であり、剥き出しで見ることのできる美ではないという。これは日本女性の伝統的な魅力でもある。だから芸者は項に白粉を塗り、寒さの厳しい冬でも素足でいるのだ。芸者の足は、彼女らが下駄で踏む雪のように、白く輝き繊細であった。そしてまた、日本最古の踊りである日本舞踊―『古事記』によると天のうずめの命（天宇受売命、天鈿女命）の踊りから派生したとされている―の踊り手たちは、足袋も履かずに素足で踊り、裸足でリズムをとっている。
平安時代（794-1185）以降、肌の白さは女性の美にとって最も重要だと見なされていた。日本女性は、理想的な純白さ（色白）を得るために様々なものを用いてきた。最も有名なのは、米粉から作る白粉や、鶯の鳥糞から作り化粧にも使われた、うぐいすの粉である。顔の白さは、紅を塗った唇の赤さと、そして何よりもお歯黒を付けた葉の黒さと絶妙なコントラストになっている。お歯黒は明治時代（1868-1912）まで残っていた既婚女性の間の風習で、開いた口をより深く黒く、魅力的に見せるものであった。今や日本では誰もしなくなったが、中国や南アジア、東南アジアの一部の地域では現在でもお歯黒の風習が残っている。
しかし実際は、理想の女性像は常に現実から遠い存在であり、到達できない幻想でもあった。現代の日本男性が誇り高く勇敢なサムライの魂を失ったように、日本女性はもはや大和撫子ではないのかもしれない。日本女性を象徴していた色白も、最近流行りの日焼けの色やや金髪、ガングロのオレンジ染みた色など、他の色に取って代わられている。ガングロ女性は肌を黒くすることで、日本の伝統と過去に別れを告げているのかもしれない。
今や、純粋な美しさと花のような女性の時代からは遠ざかってしまった。しかし日本女性が持つ女性らしさは、神秘的で物静かな魅力を今でも秘めている。日本の若い女性は、西洋の服装と大げさな化粧の下に、何かを隠し持っているのだ。今でも「魔法のような女性の魅力」というものがある。梶芽衣子の歌う『女の呪文』などは、タイトルからまさにそうである。梶芽衣子は1970年代の東映ヤクザ映画によく出演していたが、そこでは、強く残酷ではあるが、慈しみ溢れる心を持った女性を演じていた。
伝統が死に絶えないように、大和の国の花・撫子は、花弁がちょっと萎れてはいるものの今でも生き続けているのだ。

フロリアーノ・テッラーノ

higashishinbun@aol.com

(Images 3 and 7 copyright by Hoshino Komaro
www.komarohoshino.nichigei-s.com)

(Onna no Jūmon by Kaji Meiko www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjJjKUlLVa4&feature=related)

2011-01-07T10:30:00.035+01:00

The screen canvas

The video art by Paik Nam June

Paik Nam June (백남준, hanja 白南準, Seoul, 1932 – Miami, 2006) is known as the father of video art the subjects of which are screens and images. Television is used by Paik as a sculpture to admire and his compositions often hark back to classical art by using ancient works like Buddha wooden statues or bronze horses.
At the beginning Paik studies classical music as a pianist and after that - before at University of Tokyo and then in Germany – he deepens his study of contemporary music and his interest in visual arts begins. Even if art will be his main path, music will be always central in the work by Korean artist. His first solo exhibition Exposition of Music - Electronic Television in Germany in 1963 is regarded as the birth certificate of video art. From that moment on the TV screen - in every shape and dimension – will be the main distinguish element of works by Paik.
After his German experience Paik moves to New York in 1964 where he finds the suitable background for his experimental art. In 1965 he begins to look around and record the world and everyday life by his portable video recording device Sony Portapak. In the same year he creates the installation art TV Magnet in which a magnet on a television seems to attract the visual waves of the screen.
In New York he meets the American cellist Charlotte Moorman (1933- 1991) with whom he puts on three famous music and screen images performances: Opera Sextronique in 1966 in which Moorman played the cello bare breast and for this reason both the artists were arrested, TV Bra for Living Sculpture in 1969 in which cellist played wearing a bra composed of two small TV screens broadcasting images and TV Cello in 1971 in which Moorman played a cello made of three TV screens with transparent cases placed one upon another.
From that moment on the television in his works becomes more than before a symbol of culture massification and consumerism and of contrast between contemporary society and tradition. In his installations art since 1970s television are often linked with traditional art elements like ancient statues.
In his work Tv Buddha made in 1974 there is a Meditating Buddha statue in lotus position in front of a television which broadcasts his image as a mirror. We can interpretate this work in many ways: from irony to awareness of how small screen can debunk everything even religion. There are references to Buddhism in other works like the following installations art Tv Buddha, the series Zen for Tv begun in 1963 in which one light line crosses the dark screen as a calligraphy painting or the work Reclining Buddha made in 1994, in which a Laying Buddha statue is supported by two televisions which broadcast the image of a seductive naked woman reclining as the Buddha.
Paik uses television as an element of artistic creation. In 1963 he declared yet that he used cathode ray tube as painter’s canvas.
The sculpture Pre-Bell-Man placed in front of Museum für Kommunikation of Frankfurt am Main is composed of a man with body made up of televisions and radio sets on a bronze horse’s back. The contrast between the TV-man and the horse is immense. The man made up of screens recurs often in the following works by Paik, like Beuys Voice made in 1990 in which a TV-man wears an hat.
On the occasion of 1988 Seoul Olympics Paik assembles The More the Better, a work composed of 1003 monitors on overlapping cylinders as a more than 17 meters high birthday cake in the Ramp Core of National Museum of Contemporary Art of Seoul. During inauguration ceremony of this work Paik wore a white hanbok and at the feet of the big TV cake there were some drummers of Korean drum janggu. In this occasion tradition and modernity of Korea were showed together creating an image of an irreconcilable break. Big installations art which form images recur in following years like in American Flag (1985-1996) and Electronic Superhighway: Continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii (1995) in which many monitors make up American flag and American states respectively.
TV takes everyday life shape and space more and more in his latest works and it turns into other objects of human existence like the bed made up of screens in TV Bed (1972-1991) or the aquarium-screen of TV Fish series begun in 1975.
Paik Nam June elevates television and electronics to art and his works show a classic style though in a profound contrast with tradition. Paik interprets art using technological materials and his works still continue yearning for mystery which is the key to reading the genuine work of art. His works are not provocative but they are a meditation on contemporary society, on its paradoxes, its hyperboles, its lying myths. They are also a celebration of beauty which can bud from contemporary technology.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

브라운관의 캔버스

백남준의 비디오 아트

비디오 아트의 아버지로 유명한 백남준(1932년 서울에서 태생 – 2006년 마이애미에서 사망)은 예술의 소제를 비디오와 영상물로 선택했었다. 텔레비전의 비디오 영상은 백남준을 통해서 뛰어난 일종의 조각예술의 형태로 탄생되었고 일반적으로 그 창작품들은 고전예술에서 재 탄생된 것으로 불상이나 청동말상과 같은 것이다.
그는 처음에는 피아니스트로서 클래식 음악을 가까이 한다. 그래서 일본의 도쿄, 독일로 건너가서 동시대 음악에 대한 공부를 하고 점차 시각예술을 가까이 하게 된다. 비록 그가 시각 예술에서 최고의 거장이 될 것이지만 음악은 한국예술 작품에 기본적으로 항상 남아있게 된다.
그의 첫 번째 개인 전시회는 1963년 독일에서 “음악의 전시-전자 텔레비전”이라는 타이틀로 시행됐으며 비디오 아트의 탄생을 예고했다. 그 때부터 텔레비전의 모든 종류의 형태와 크기는 백남준의 작품에서 지속적인 소제가 된다.
독일에서 있었던 전시회의 경험을 바탕으로 1964년 백남준은 미국 뉴욕으로 거주지를 이전한다. 그는 뉴욕이 그의 실험적인 예술세계에 합당하다고 생각했기 때문이다. 1965년에는 소니 포타팩 (Sony Portapak)의 이동 텔레카메라로 세계의 모습을 담기 시작하고, 그를 중심으로 이루어지는 일상생활을 담기 시작한다. 같은 해 자석 TV가 탄생되는데, 이는 텔레비전 화면 위로 자석을 놓음으로써, 이는 꼭 화면 속에 있는 영상을 밖으로 끌어당기는 것 같은 착각을 보여준다.
한편, 뉴욕에서는 미국의 첼로연주자 샬럿 무어먼(1933- 1991)과 역사적인 만남이 이루어지고 뮤직 퍼포먼스와 비디어 영상에 관한 가장 유명한 작품 들 중 세 작품을 그녀와 함께하게 된다. 1966년의 “오페라 섹스트로니크” 에서 모먼은 가슴을 누드로 한 채 첼로 연주를 시도하다가 두명의 예술가는 동시에 경찰에 체포 되기도 하였다. 그리고 1969년 “살아있는 조각을 위한 TV 브라” 에서 모먼은 두 개의 작은 영상 스크린으로 만들어진 브래지어를 입은 채 연주를 했고 스크린을 통해서는 영상물이 반영되었다. 1971년에는”TV 첼로”를 연주했는데 이는 첼로 위에 투명 케이스 모양의 영상TV세 개가 설치된 작품이다.
이때부터 그의 작품에서 텔레비전은 처음보다 더 더욱 문화와 소비의 대중매체의 상징이 되고 현대 사회와 전통 사이의 대조를 확실히 구분하는 획이 되기도 한다. 한편, 1970년부터 텔레비전은 종종 고대의 조각상과 같은 전통 예술의 형태로 만드는데 이용되어 지기 시작한다.
1974년 “TV 부처” 라는 작품에서는 불상은 연꽃의 자세로 명상하고 있고 그 앞에는 TV가 있다.
TV는 마치 거울처럼 불상의 이미지를 반영한다. 이 작품에서는 굉장히 복합적인 감정이 느껴지는데 부처의 명상하는 모습에서는 풍자에서 깨달음에 이르기까지 다양한 감정을 느낄 수 있다. 텔레비전이라는 매체가 어떻게 그 신성을 박탈시키는지를 여실히 보여준다. 다시 말해 종교 그 자체의 신성을 박탈시키기도 한다. 불교는 그의 다른 작품들에서도 이용되는데 TV 부처에 이어서 만든 작품들을 보면 알 것이다. 1963년 “TV를 위한 젠” 은 초기의 시리즈 작품 중 하나이다. 이 작품에서는 꼭 일종의 서체 같은 밝은 선 하나가 어두움을 관통하고 있다. 그리고 1994년의 “누워 있는 부처”라는 작품에서는 두개의 텔레비전이 누워 있는 불상을 지탱하고 그 화면 속 에서는 신성한 포즈를 한 미성속한 여인의 영상물이 반영된다.
백남준에게 있어서 TV는 무엇보다 예술을 창안하기 위한 요소이다. 1963년에 이미 캔버스지 대신에 CRT의 모니터를 사용을 확신했다. 독일 “프랑크푸르트의 커뮤니케이션 박물관” 의 입구에 세워진 “프리-벨-맨” 이라는 조각상에서 우리는 텔레비전과 라디오로 몸이 만들어진 사람을 만날 수 있는데 이는 청동으로 된 말을 올라타고 있다. 텔레비전 모양의 사람과 말의 대조성은 굉장히 크다. 이 모양의 사람은 백남준의 다음 작품에서도 종종 볼 수 있다. 1990년 “보이스/보이스” 라는 작품에서 모자를 눌러 쓴 같은 모양의 텔레비전 사람을 발견할 수 있다.
1988년 서울올림픽을 맞아 그는 “다다익선” 이라는 작품을 선보였다. 1003개의 비디오 모니터를 이용한 작품으로 이는 생일 케잌 같은 모양으로 실린더가 위쪽으로 싸여가는 모양으로 17미터 보다 더 높은 크기로 서울 국립현대미술관에 전시되어 있다. 백남준은 작품의 기념 행사 동안 그는 하얀색의 한복을 입었었고 이 거대한 작품 앞에는 한국의 전통북인 장구 고수들이 있었다. 한국의 전통과 현대는 돌이킬 수 없는 파괴 모습을 담은 영상으로 표현되었다. 이처럼 대형 비디오를 통한 설치예술의 작품들은 계속에서 그의 후속 작품들에서 보여진다. “미국국기” (1985-1996) 그리고 “전자 초고속도로” 와 같은 작품들이다. 1995년의 “미국대륙, 알레스카, 하와이” 라는 작품에서는 수많은 TV모니터가 미국기와 각각의 미국의 주를 표현했다.
그의 최근 작품 중 에서 그는 텔레비전을 이용하여 사람의 존재를 구성하는 사물들을 변화 시키는 등 텔레비전은 일상생활의 공간을 더 크게 더 다양한 형태로 표현한다. 1972-1991년 작 “TV 침대”의 브라운관으로 된 침대나 1975년에 시작된 “TV 물고기” 작품 시리즈의 수중 브라운관 같은 것이다.
백남준은 텔레비전과 전자를 예술의 주류로 편입시켰다. 그의 작품은 전형적인 고전적인 스타일을 가지고 있지만 전통적인 것과는 커다란 차이를 보인다. 그는 사실상 예술을 현대의 기술 매체를 통해 해석하고 그의 예술 작품은 여전히 수수께끼 같은 열망을 보여준다. 그리고 이러한 열망은 진정한 예술의 창조성을 보여주는 것이기도 하다. 그의 작품의 일반적 해석으로서는 선동적이라기 보다는 현재 사회의 모습을 역설적이고 과장적으로 표현하거나 현대의 거짓 신화적인 인물에 대해 다시 한번 조명해 보도록 한다. 또한 그의 작품은 현대 테크놀로지를 통해 탄생될 수 있는 예술의 아름다움을 찬양한 것이기도 하다.

플로리아노 테르라노

higashishinbun@aol.com

번역: 정근영 jgyoung0252@gmail.com

(www.paikstudios.com)

2010-10-08T12:37:00.024+02:00

On the occasion of

Like the flow of the river

Photographic journey through history

and the ordinary of Shōwa Japan (1926-1989)

Emperor Hirohito ascends the throne in 1926: Shōwa period begins and lasts up to his death in 1989. The "period of enlightened peace" is a very long time of splendour and misery, of war and peace, of wealth and poverty, from which nowadays Japan derives. Photography is an account of history and the ordinary of Shōwa Japan. Both photography by great masters, by reporters and by anonymous hands of which we will never know names.
Photography portrays emperor Hirohito during different moments and it follows the excruciating changes of society as a truth mirror: the portrait in full solemn Heian period dress (794 -1185) in throne ascending day, the decorous pose as loser by victorious MacArthur's side in their first meeting day in 1945, the last pictures which let show the melancholy of final days.
The entire Shōwa Japan parades in front of photographers' lenses: the post-war years, American invasion, break up of believes of whole nation, irreversible change of society, recovery and richness. News photographers who pick people as subjects like Tanuma Takeyoshi (田沼武能) and Hayashi Tadahiko (林忠彦) or photographers who follow the way of fine art photography - apparently divorced from reality but everyday life-soaked - like Tōmatsu Shōmei (東松照明) and Moriyama Daidō (森山大道).
Reality and imagination join indissolubly together in the life of writer Mishima Yukio, symbol of the contrast between Japan's wish for tradition and its inescapable need for modernity. Photographs which portray Mishima after his death can be confused with those before: in a picture of 1966 he is portrayed as Saint Sebastian martyr - an aesthetic subject that he holds dear – by Shinoyama Kishin (篠山紀信).
A symbolic place marks the flow of time in the rushing course of decades: Nihonbashi bridge in Tokyo. It is the heart of Japan and of capital city and it is the point from which all the main arterial streets start. Photographs show its life between destruction and revival of Tokyo in history up to 1960s when an expressway built just over the Japan Bridge obscured the celebrated view of Mount Fuji.
All these photographs bring the life of Shōwa Japan back to our eyes regardless of their subjects. They bring back the life made of instants of a time which flowed away like the flow of the river as the title of the most famous song by Queen of Shōwa Misora Hibari.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

川の流れのように

写真で旅する昭和（１９２６－１９８９）の歴史と日常

１９２６年、裕仁が天皇になると改元され昭和時代が始まり裕仁死去の１９８９年までの６２年間、昭和時代が続いた。昭和は歴史上でも最も長く続いた時代でありそれは、輝きと悲哀、戦争と平和、富と貧困の時代であった。この時から現在の日本が生まれた。写真にはこの時代の歴史や日々の日常生活が映し出されており有名な写真家が撮影した写真、報道写真家が撮影した写真、そして一般の人が撮影した写真の全てから昭和を見ることが出来る。
昭和天皇の写真は数多く残されており、これらの写真から日本社会がどのように変化していったかを鏡の様に真実を映し出している。よって昭和天皇の写真には多くのバリエーションがあり、天皇に即位した日に撮られた写真は平安時代（７９４－１１８５）の服装で荘厳に満ちた肖像である。１９４５年、敗戦国の国家元首となった時にアメリカの最高司令官であったマッカーサーとの初会談の写真。そして後半の写真は昭和天皇が御歳をめされたものでその表情はとても悲哀に満ちているようだ。
戦後の日本、アメリカ人の侵入、日本国民の自信の廃退、社会の後退できない変化、経済と富の回復、これらの昭和の日本を写真家達はレンズを通して写した。田沼武能や林忠彦といった写真家達は主に日常の生活をする人々を対象に撮っていた。また東松照明や森山大道といったように芸術性に富んだ写真を撮る写真家もいた。彼らの写真は現実離れしている様だが実は生活や社会と強く繋がっている。
作家、故・三島由紀夫の生涯は現実であり不実であった。三島は昭和と共に歩み日本の敗戦を機に近代化への変化を余儀なくされた時代に対立し孤立した作家である。三島の写真には例えば自決事件を起こす４年前の１９６６年、三島自身が聖セバスティアンに扮し写真家の篠山紀信撮影による「聖セバスティアンの殉教」の様に彼の生と死の姿が混同してしまう。
東京の日本橋は日本のそして東京の中心に位置しており、ここから主要な道が築かれている。写真には１９６０年代までの破壊と再生の間で生きてきた東京の日本橋を見ることが出来る。日本橋の上に高架道路が建設された時、今までの素晴らしい富士山の景色は隠れてしまった。これら全ての写真からは川の流れのように流れ行った昭和時代、また昭和の歌姫である美空ひばりの最も有名な曲『川の流れのように』は私たちを昭和の時代へ連れ戻してくれる。

フロリアーノ・テッラーノ
.

higashishinbun@aol.com

(www.mostre.fondazione-crmo.it/index-moriyama-english.asp)

2010-08-25T09:32:00.044+02:00

.
.

Korean nature beauty in verses

The paintings in poetry

by Yun Seondo

Paintings in poetry. These are the visual verses by Yun Seondo (윤선도, hanja 尹善道, 1587–1671), the most important Korean poet of Joseon Korea (1392 – 1897) and one of the masters of Korean literature. His poems paint Korean nature beauty in perpetual passage of seasons. Yun’s poetic form is sijo (시조, “time rhythm”) made of three lines of lyrical subject in which there is a solid and profound reference to real and symbolic elements of nature. Shortness makes sijo be very penetrating as other poetic forms of Far East for example Japanese haiku.
Sijo developed in last years of Goryeo kingdom (918 – 1392) and it probably was an oral poetry then written out by Confucian monks around XI century and it reaches its climax during Joseon period in the same years of Yun Seondo. Sijo was originally set to music and it had a Confucian or Taoist religious subject.
Yun Seondo writes innovative and very original verses although he refers to classical sijo. His style is pictorial. His poems show misty landscapes and rivers of Korea like a shan shui painting (山水, “mountain-water”). Natural elements are depicted by few neat strokes as a calligrapher and painter’s brushstrokes. Few strokes which sketch out the landscape that our imagination completes. Lonely mountain (고산, Kosan) and Old Man of the Sea (해옹, Haeong) – pennames used often by Yun Seondo – evoke his profound link with nature. In his verses nature is depicted in its real and symbolic beauty. One of his most famous poems is Songs on Five Friends (오우가, hanja 五友歌, Owuga) composed in 1642 during his exile in Haenam (해남군, “South sea county”) in south-western Korean peninsula: 내 벗이 몇인가하 ᄒᆞ니 수석과 송죽이라 / 동산의 ᄃᆞᆯ오르니 긔더옥 반갑고야 / 두어라 이다ᄉᆞᆺ밧긔 또더ᄒᆞ야 머엇ᄒᆞ리 - You ask how many friends I have ? Water and stone, bamboo and pine / The moon rising over the eastern hill is a joyful companion / Besides these five friends, what other pleasure should I ask ? This sijo is apparently simple though its symbolism calls to mind Chinese classical tradition. In these verses there is the presence of moon which is very important in Far East art and literature and there is also the quotation of pine and bamboo, two of “Three Friends in Winter” (岁寒三友) together with plum. These plants which brave the cold winter - pine by its sturdiness and mightiness, bamboo by its flexibility and strength and plum by its strong beauty - symbolize aplomb of wise man even during misfortune. Yun Seondo indirectly refers to his incident as exiled from court for long. “Three Friends in Winter” are beloved subjects in Chinese, Korean and Japanese panting as the painting by Chinese master Zhao Mengjian (趙孟堅, 1199 -1264/67) held at National Palace Museum of Taipei.

The masterpiece of Yun is Four Seasons of a Fisherman (어부사시사, hanja 漁父四時詞, Eobusasisa), written in 1651, made of forty sijo and divided into four groups of ten poems, one for each season. Variation of seasons’ colours and landscapes is seen by an hermit fisherman’s eyes (漁父, the occupational fisherman is in fact written with characters 漁夫) and seasons’ time is beaten by his boat. It seems that Yun Seondo has been inspired by painting to write this work too. Landscapes during four seasons are subject of many paintings and in these works a fisherman is often depicted as in Solitary angler on the wintry lake by Ma Yuan (马远, c. 1160/65 – 1225) which is the first example of this kind of painting. In this work held at Tokyo National Museum we see a lonely stationary boat in the cold stillness of a winter lake. In Chinese classical poetry fisherman symbolizes wisdom and simplicity of a way of living which ties to nature. Four Seasons of a Fisherman are not only pictorial poems, they are even “sounding” thanks to onomatopoeia. The sound of anchor chain and of oars is expressed by refrain chigukch'ong, chigukch'ong, oshwa ! (지국총 지국총 어사와) after lines one and three of every sijo. These words give rhythm to all the poem. Fisherman lives in nature and all natural elements seem to show themselves during his fishing. It seems that nature itself takes part in his fishing for example when moon comes back home together with fisherman in the seventh sijo of spring.
In Yun Seondo sijo nature is always depicted as a part of the life and it is admired through its dramatic beauty. Nature is never drawn as something faraway from human beings. In his poems we can discover the profound root of Korean culture, a culture which expresses calm and disquieting enchantment of nature through art and literature.
This is why reading of Yun Seondo moves and surprises even nowadays.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

윤선도 시인의 시와 그림

고산 윤선도 선생은 조선시대(1392~1897) 중기에 태어나 조선조 시조문학을 장식한 대시인(大詩人)이다. 초장, 중장, 종장으로 구성되는 3장의 정형시로 계절마다 변하는 자연의 아름다움을 표현한 윤선도 선생의 시조는 훗날 일본의 하이쿠(Haiku : 17 음절로 구성된 일본의 전통 단시)의 탄생에도 영향을 주기도 하였다.
‘시조’는 고려(918~1392) 중엽에 발생한 한국 전통시 양식 중의 하나이며 윤선도 선생이 태어난 조선시대에 집중적으로 향유되었던 문학이다.
옛 방식을 따르지 않고 독자적이고 획기적인 창의성을 발휘하여 지은 윤선도 선생의 시조는 한 폭의 풍경화처럼 자연의 경관을 아름답게 묘사하고 있다. 자연을 사랑했던 윤선도 선생의 호는 고산(외로운 산) 또는 해웅(바다의 노인)으로서 1642년 해남군 유배생활 당시에 지은 ‘오우가’라는 시조 <내 벗이 몇인가하 ᄒᆞ니 수석과 송죽이라 / 동산의 ᄃᆞᆯ오르니 긔더옥 반갑고야 / 두어라 이다ᄉᆞᆺ밧긔 또더ᄒᆞ야 머엇ᄒᆞ리 (나의 벗이 몇이나 있느냐 헤아려 보니 물과 돌과 소나무, 대나무다. 게다가 동쪽 산에 달이 밝게 떠오르니 그것은 더욱 반가운 일이로구나. 그만 두자, 이 다섯 가지면 그만이지 이 밖에 다른 것이 더 있은들 무엇하겠는가?)> 에서는 동양문화에서 가장 중요한 의미를 가지는 ‘달’과 강한 절개를 나타내는 ‘소나무’ 그리고 침착하고 곧은 의지를 나타내는 ‘대나무’를 친구로서 형상화하여 이들에 대한 짙은 애정을 드러내고 있다.
봄, 여름, 가을, 겨울로 나뉘어 각각 10수씩 모두 40수로 되어있는 ‘어부사시사’는 윤선도 선생의 1651년 작품으로서 어부의 시각에서 바라본 사계절을 아름답게 묘사하고 있다. 사계절 중 특히 겨울 바다의 ‘어부’를 외로운 느낌으로 표현한 일본이나 자연에 의지하며 살아가는 것으로 표현한 중국의 문학과는 달리 윤선도 선생은 자연과 하나되어 살아가는 ‘어부’의 생활을 노래하였다. 이는 봄을 노래한 ‘춘사’ 7절에서 ‘달과 함께 귀가하는’ 모습을 표현한 것에서도 찾을 수 있다. 또한 ‘지국총 지국총 어사와’라는 형상화된 의성어를 각 절마다 후렴구로 사용하여 노 젓는 소리와 어부들의 흥겨움을 나타냄으로서 그 상황을 선연하게 그려볼 수 있도록 표현하고 있다.
자연을 사랑하고 그것과 하나된 윤선도 선생은 작품을 통해 속세를 떠나 자연에 묻힌 삶을 묘사하고 자연의 아름다움을 찬양하였다. 순수 국어를 사용하여 자연을 제재로 한 많은 작품을 탄생시켰고, 자연을 생활화 하였으며, 자연에 접근하는 다양한 문학적 방법으로 자연의 황홀함을 표현한 한국 조선 문화의 대표자가 되었다. 오늘날 까지도 윤선도 선생의 작품은 널리 읽혀지고 놀라움을 자아내고 있다.

플로리아노 테라노

higashishinbun@aol.com

2010-07-26T14:27:00.109+02:00

.

Dialogue with Iwana Masaki

.
Butō, dance and theatre
.
between revolution
.

and tradition

It’s a November rainy day when we meet Iwana Masaki. We ask him some questions about his activity as butō-maker sipping a green tea cup in the half-light of his hotel.
Masaki began his career as Western style modern theatre actor in Tokyo but then he felt that his artistic way might have been different. Therefore he started his journey through butō which was created in Japan during the 1950s by Ōno Kazuo (大野一雄, 1906 – 2010) and Hijikata Tatsumi (土方巽, 1928 – 1986).
Butō is often said to be dance-theatre or dance only though it is impossible to classify this artistic genre since it continuously recurs and it often denies its principles.
Let’s listen to Masaki’s voice speaking about butō.

1) Masaki, butō was born in Japan but perhaps it is more well known abroad above all in Usa, in Canada and in Europe where there are some butō companies often constituted by non-Japanese actors. Why that happens and what do You think about?
«In Japan butō was and is in the sphere of subculture. That happens because official culture is afraid of butō message. In Japan culture is rigidly divided between sensei “master” and seito “pupil”. Abroad – for example in Europe - people appreciate butō as a new dance and they don’t consider it as an inferior art compared to official culture. In Japan the name “butō” itself is little known. When I tell Japanese people I am a butō actor many of them open their eyes wide and ask me if I would have meant “budō” i. e. martial arts».

2) At the beginning butō originated a deep action of breaking traditional dance and theatre styles. Nevertheless is there a link between butō and Japanese classic theatre like nō and kabuki?
«Butō is a form of contemporary dance and its idea has very little to do with tradition. However butō was born in Japan and its performers were all Japanese at the beginning. Japanese culture has its distant roots in agriculture world and in its rites. Besides there is a deep difference between posture and movement of body in West and East both in life than in theatre. For example sitting cross-legged similar to lotus position is common for all Asian people from India to Japan where it is called agura (胡坐). Agura is very difficult for Westerns instead in Japan it is at the base of normal body dynamics also in traditional theatre like kabuki and nō. Western spectators of butō are generally surprised by slowness of actors’ gestures. This feature has become a commonplace of butō which is associated with slow movement. Nevertheless slowness is only the result and not the requirement of the study of movement made by butō dancers».

3) Butō is generally said by many to be a dance and its performers to be dancers though butō is indissolubly linked up with theatre and music. What is Your personal experience about that?
«I began my experience as an actor of new Japanese Western-style theatre. I got bored very soon of this kind of acting. In fact I felt my body didn’t follow my voice, I felt myself as a “talking camcorder on a tripod”. This is why I chose the way of butō. I don’t know if butō is or not the union of dance, theatre and music but I can tell you than my approach on stage consists of asking myself “what is the body” and I’ve found the reply in butō which doesn’t separate voice and body».

4) In Japanese traditional theatre there are families of actors called sōke (宗家) who hand down their art from father to son as Ichikawa family in kabuki and Kanze family in nō. Instead in butō – apart from the experience of the son of Ōno Kazuo Yoshito - there are no leading families . Is butō more open compared to other Japanese arts?
«My mother Iwana Shizu has been on the stage of nō as an actress for sixty years. She has been a member of Umewaka family competing with Kanze. When I was young I watched often her nō plays. Butō - contrary to common belief – is not a completely open and free art but it is approachable only in half. Japan has been for long a locked up island and with no exchange with foreign countries. Nowadays Japan is more free and open but a partial locking still remains above all in some cultural communities. When I think about Japanese culture I imagine it as a long and thin yarn. This characteristic made Japanese culture lengthy and profound but also it is its weak point. In butō there are no leading families though there are masters who impose strict and steady rules on their pupils. In Japan there is a severe selection for taking part in every butō group. For my part, I am completely alone since I feel free and I don’t want to have pupils on who impose my own view of art. In 1970s in Japan butō had its greatest diffusion and there were many actors in conflict among them to conquer the artistic hegemony. Nowadays young butō performers are less rebellious and more docile».

5) When I saw You on stage I was very impressed above all about your feet, about their movements. I think that standing upright on ankles for long must be deeply hard, painful and wearying. What is the importance of feet and of walking in butō? Are there some analogies with feet movement style of Japanese traditional theatre?
«Butō movements must seem painful though actually they are not. Actor studies movements so well that there is no physical suffering. Western dancers wear shoes instead Asian dancers dance barefoot. Japanese people use tabi, traditional socks which give feet the naturalness of nakedness. Westerners usually think sole is completely flat but our feet have curved shape which allows many positions and movements. I studied feet movements of my mother although in nō feet movement is mainly horizontal instead in butō are above all vertical».

6) Some butō performances were mind-blowing for audience. For example it was very famous the killing of a chicken on stage in 1959 by Ōno Yoshito in “Kinjiki” by Hijikata Tatsumi (禁色, “Forbidden colours” from the novel by Mishima Yukio). Your performances are instead delicate and certainly not violent and spectators feel “caressed” by your movements. Is this your own butō style?
«Yes. My butō is delicate and my movements are soft. I have reached this style by a deep study of my body. For me it’s more important to act with my body than with objects. My body is the object which is on stage with me. Some actors don’t make objects “living” but they just use objects. The word “to use” has got the idea of hierarchy in itself and I don’t like that and I want to avoid it».

7) In butō actor’s body is very important and visage as well. In your performances you often wear a simple mask which plays your feature up. What is the importance of visage expressivity and of mask in butō?
«In Western modern theatre visage is more instrumental than body. Some butō actors act mainly with visage so that audience often couple butō with exaggerated facial expressions. For my part visage is as important as body since it is a part of it. In nō many masks are used and there is a character called hitamen (直面, “plain face”) – generally the deuteragonist – who acts open-face. Fifty years ago I saw the superb stage performance by actor Umewaka Rokuro as hitamen and I was so impressed about it».

8) It’s very difficult to explain what butō is and perhaps it’s useless to try to explain that. It’s better to say “to feel butō” instead of saying “to understand butō”. Watching a butō performance is more a physical experience than a mental experience. What do you think about that?
«Just like that. Very often spectators would like to know the meaning of butō performance. Nevertheless if audience demands an explanation for everything that is being staged it ends by not feeling the deep emotion which is the real message of butō. Dancers must pierce spectators’ body not their minds».

9) Butō is a young art which was born just few years ago. It’s a young and nevertheless old art which is perhaps close to rituals of primitive theatre. When butō was born it was characterized by a deep will to break traditional dramatic style both in Japan and in world. Do you think that nowadays butō has lost its innovation and break power? Do You think that sometime a new artist will find another kind of dramatic style to go beyond butō and to shatter its rules?
«I belong to second generation of butō dancers. Young butō dancers of nowadays are the third generation. They have completely lost the starting idea by Ōno Kazuo of butō as break with tradition. Although the name “butō” hung over this art still has just few of its initial feelings. I think that the word “butōist” still means “non-conformist artist” even if there are less and less performers who really long for breaking».

The time Masaki has spent with us elapsed in double-quick time and tea in the cup got cold. We would have liked to listen to his calm and persuasive voice more, we would have liked to see some more his visage which resembles the feature of heita (平太) nō mask of a warrior in full maturity. However he has to leave yet, he can't talk too much. Masaki is a master who doesn't want to have pupils.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

舞踏家　岩名雅紀氏との対談

伝統と前衛の混合形態を

もつダンス、舞踏

岩名雅紀氏とお会いしたのは雨のふる１１月でした。彼の滞在するホテルの一室で緑茶を飲みながら彼の舞踏への取り組みや活動について質問をした。雅紀氏は東京で西洋現代劇の俳優として活動を始めたが、彼は舞踏への道へ進んだ。舞踏は１９５０年代後半に土方巽（１９２８－１９８６）と大野一雄（１９０６－２０１０）らによって誕生した。
舞踏は確かにダンスあり音楽ありで、現代舞踊や舞台舞踊などと呼ばれているがその言葉だけでは終れない深い思いがそこには込められている。
雅紀氏に舞踏について色々と答えて頂きました。

1) 雅紀さん、舞踏は日本よりも特にアメリカ、カナダ、ヨーロッパなどの海外でのほうがより知られていますね。そして雅紀さんはしばしば日本人以外の役者と舞踏をされることがあります。それはなぜでしょうか、またその事についてどう思われますか？
日本での舞踏はサブカルチャーの範囲で止まっていたし、止まってしまった。なぜならば舞踏に込められたメッセージを正式な文化として認めるのを恐れたから。日本の文化は先生と生徒の関係を厳格に別けている。例えば海外、ヨーロッパでは舞踏を公式文化と比べて低級芸術としてとらえるのではなく一つの新しいダンスとして評価してくれている。私が舞踏家ですと言うと多くの日本人は目を大きく見開いて、刀を使って練習する武道の事を言いたいのではないかと訊ねてきます。そのくらい日本人は舞踏を知らない人が多いのです。

2) 舞踏が生まれた時、伝統舞踊や演劇の原則を大きく破壊する影響力を持っていましたが、それでもやはり能や歌舞伎の様な伝統芸能と何らかの関係があるのでしょうか？
舞踏は現代舞踊でありそのアイディアは日本の伝統舞踊とは一切関係がありません。しかし舞踏は日本で生まれその当初の出演者は全て日本人でした。日本文化の根源は農業やその事に関しての儀式や祭式と密接に結ばれています。さらに、西洋と東洋では根本的に姿勢や体の使い方に違いがあります。例えば座る時の格好ですが、インドから日本までのアジアの人々は共通してあぐらである。西洋人にとってあぐらはとても難しいことであり、歌舞伎や能も基本は東洋人の普段の体の動きをするので西洋人にとっては自然にとはいかないでしょう。西洋で舞踏を上演する時、観客は役者のゆっくりとした動きに驚きます。多くの方々が舞踏の特徴は動きがゆっくりしていること、そして舞踏＝ゆっくりとした動きと思っています。しかし緩慢は前置きではなく、それぞれの動きの背景にある舞踏役者の研究成果が現れた結果なのです。

3) 舞踏は舞踊でそしてその踊りをする人達を舞踏家と呼んでいます。しかし舞踏には音楽や舞台にも多くの工夫をされて大きな役割を持っていると思います。そのことについて、どう思われますか？
私は西洋スタイルの演劇役者として舞台に立ち始めました。しかし間もなくして飽きてしまったのです。それは私の心の声と体が一致しなかった為です。それから舞踏家への道へと進んでいったのです。舞踏が本当に踊りと舞台と音楽が一体となっているかどうかは分りませんが、私は身体とはいったい何かという事を自分自身に問い続け、声と体が一体となって表現できる舞踏にその答えを見つけました。

4) 日本の伝統芸能は歌舞伎で有名な市川家や能で有名な観世流といったように代々親から子へ受け継がれてきていますね。しかし舞踏に関していえば舞踏家の大野一雄氏の息子である大野慶人氏が受け継いだ以外は他に例がありませんよね。ということは舞踏は他の日本芸能と比べてみると多くの人に対してオープンということなのでしょうか？
私の母、岩名しずは７０年間能役者として舞台に立ち続けました。観世流とは対立していた梅若流に所属していました。私が若かった頃はよく母に付き添って行きました。多くの人が舞踏は誰でも勉強できる芸術と思われていますが、実際にはそうではありません。日本は長い間海外との交流を絶ち鎖国をしていた背景からか、より自由にオープンになった今日でさえ、特に文化面に関してはまだ閉ざした部分が残っています。日本の文化を考えた時、長くて細い紐をイメージ持ちます。この性格は深遠から成っていますが同時に弱さでもあるのです。舞踏には家元がなくても師匠はいますし、弟子達には厳しく昔から変わることのない規則を命じています。日本ではさらにどの舞踏グループに入門するにしても厳しい審査があります。私自身に関しては完全に一人です。なぜならば自由を感じていたいし、私の芸術(美)的ビジョンを誰かに強制したくないので弟子も取りたくありません。１９７０年代は日本で舞踏が一般的に広く知られた時で、多くの役者達が舞踏家としての覇権を勝ち取る為に対立をしていました。今日、舞踏を学ぶ若者達は大人しくて逆らう者も少ないですね。

5) 私があなたの舞台を見た時、特に足の指の動きに衝撃を受けました。その動きは想像を絶するほど難しく踝で長い間まっすぐ立つことは痛みを伴い疲れを伴うと思います。舞踏での足の動きや歩き方には何が重要なのでしょうか？そして日本の伝統芸能と似た足の動かし方があるのでしょうか？
舞踏での動きは苦痛を伴っているように見えますが実際はそうではありません。役者は日々努力を重ねることにより物理的な苦しみや苦痛を感じなくなります。西洋人ダンサーは靴下を履きますが東洋人は裸足です。日本人は裸足に近い感覚を持てる足袋を使います。西洋人は足の裏を平らだと思っていますが、実はさまざまなバリエーションや動きを可能にできるようカーブがかっています。足の動きは能役者だった母から学びました。能では畳の上を滑る様に水平な動きをしますが、舞踏は主に垂直な動きをします。

6) いくつかの舞踏演目は観客に衝撃を与えます。有名な場面として１９５９年、土方巽の演出による禁色（三島由紀夫原作）を大野慶人が演じた鶏を殺すシーンだと思います。しかし岩名さんの舞台には一切暴力的なシーンはなく繊細で、その動きからは優しさや温もりを感じます。これが岩名さんの舞踏スタイルですか？
はい、私の舞踏は優しく繊細な動きをします。この動きは私自身の体を長年に渡り研究し、たどり着いたスタイルです。私にとって重要な事は物を使って表現するのではなく私の体を使って表現することです。舞台の上では私の肉体が物体となるのです。役者の中には物を命ある物として表現しない人もいますが舞台の中では、人も物も上下関係などなく一体となることが重要であると思います。

7) ということは、舞踏は役者の体は勿論、表情もとても重要ですね。岩名さんは舞台でよく仮面を着けられていますが、舞踏において表情の表現性や仮面にはどのような重要性がありますか？
西洋の現代演劇は恐らく体と比べると顔の表情がより重要な役をしていると思います。舞踏役者の中には顔の表情に重点をおいて表現する人もいます、よって観客の中には舞踏とは顔のパントマイムと思っている人もいるようです。私にとって顔は体の一部として同じように重要です。能では仮面を使用する役者と仮面で顔を隠さずに観客に見せる直面（ひためん、ひたおもて）と呼ばれる役者がいるのが一般的です。５０年前、直面役者の若梅六郎氏の雄壮な演出を見た時、深く心を打ちました。

8) 舞踏を言葉で説明する事は本当に難しいですし、試みること自体が無意味だと思います。“舞踏を理解する”ではなく“舞踏を感じる”という表現をしたほうが良いかと思います。舞踏を見る時は動きの意味を考えるのではなく体で感じることが大切ですね。そのことについてはどう思われますか？
まさにその通りです。多くの観客は舞踏の意味は何かという事を知りたがりますが、もし舞踏を見る時それぞれのシーンの意味を考えながら見ても本当の感動を得ることは出来ないでしょうし、本当に伝えたいメッセージは伝わらないでしょう。舞踏役者は観客の頭脳にではなく体に入り込んでいかなくてはいけないのです。

9) 日本の伝統芸能と比べて舞踏はまだ誕生して日が浅いですが、舞台芸術の基礎であると思います。舞踏が誕生した時、日本や世界の演劇界の伝統的原則を破壊しようと強い意志を持っていたと思います。雅紀さんは今日の舞踏においてその意志はまだ受け継がれていると思いますか？そしていずれ舞踏よりもう一歩先に進んだ前衛芸術が生まれると思いますか？
私は二世代目の舞踏家の一員で今、舞踏を学んでいる若者達は三世代目になります。彼らは大野一雄氏が持っていた伝統を壊すという当初の概念を完全に失っています。舞踏という名は残っていますが誕生した時の強い志を感じている人は少ないでしょうね。心から芸術の常識を壊したいと思っている人が年々少なくなってきていますが、私は舞踏が今もなお常識破りの芸術であることを信じています。

雅紀氏と共にした時間はあっという間に過ぎてしまい、初めから注いであった緑茶には手を伸ばす事も無くそのまま冷たくなって湯飲みに残ったままでした。彼の落ち着いた魅力的な声、能面の平太（歴戦の勇者）に似た横顔を見ながらもう少しの間、時間を共にしたかったが多忙な彼はもう行かなければならない、そして多く語ることはない。

フロリアーノ・テッラーノ

higashishinbun@aol.com

(Images courtesy of Iwana Masaki
www.iwanabutoh.com)

2010-06-30T16:39:00.029+02:00

The last mystery of Far East

Places and legends

of North Korea

Present age gave us all comforts of technology but it took away sense of mystery from us. By now everything is more or less revealed and travelling is possible just by surfing the Net. Far East - symbol of mystery and of the unknown in the eyes of the westerners - showed itself too and nowadays it resembles too much West. Art, architecture, even music become more and more similar and it is hard to differentiate East from West. Only one last mystery still remains in Far East i. e. North Korea, a locked up and unknown country of which just very little is known.
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk, 조선민주주의인민공화국) was founded in 1948 on the painful ashes of Japanese occupation and of Second World War. It is well-known for its isolation from world which makes it an anachronistic nation suspended in the history. The scanty news we know are only suppositions or fragments of accounts of the few escaped. Nobody knows how is the real situation above the 38th Parallel.
Satellite pictures of Korea by night show the contrast between many lights of the South and deep darkness of the North. We know more the past of this country in the dark than its present. Between Pyongyang and Namp'o the Goguryeo Tombs lie – UNESCO world heritage site – which are the most important example of the art of the Northern Korean Kingdom (37 BC – 668 AD). Tombs' frescoes represent everyday life of Goguryeo Korea in a bright and colourful way. Pyongyang (평양 직할시 “Flat land”) was the capital of Goguryeo Kingdom from 427 to 668 conquest by Silla.
Architecture follows the time and in North Korea signs of the past live together with the new buildings. The capital is the place where this contrast is well perceivable and it is the only city of which we know some architectural symbols. Historical name of Pyongyang is Ryugyŏng “capital of willows” (류경, hanja 柳京) and it seems that there are still many willows in the city. Ryugyŏng Hotel is named after the ancient poetic name of the city. The hotel is an endless setting-up cement pyramid which is the highest building of the country and it is one of the symbols of North Korea itself. Begun in 1987 and not completed yet, it is 330 meters tall and it stands out above the foggy horizon of the capital. The rough architecture was built by Baikdoosan Architects and Engineers and it is an huge skeleton which is not Korean, not Far Eastern and - in a manner of speaking - not "human". Its style is neither modern nor ancient, neither beautiful nor ugly – since ugliness is an aesthetic category itself - it is a loss of cultural roots of past Korea memorial. In the capital – insofar as we know – few signs of the past still remain: the eastern gate Taedongmun (대동문) built near Taedong River in the Korean classic style with granite arch and wall on which there is a wooden double sloping pavilion, the western gate Potongmun (보통문) near Potong River rebuilt after Korea War and the pavilions on the Moran hill “peony hill” (모란봉).
Some new monumental buildings have been erected trying to appreciate Korean tradition from a modern point of view, according to ideology of North Korea. Classical style roofs with bent slopings are built on aseptic Stalinist-style buildings like the Grand People's Study House (인민대학습당, 1982), the national library which raises on Kim Il-sung Square.
Tradition can’t blend in with modernity also in sculpture like Chollima statue erected in 1961 on Mansu hill. Chollima (천리마, hanja 千里馬) is the mythical winged horse of Korean culture. Its name means “Thousand-li horse” because it can cover long distance without resting. Many chollima statues and paintings had been recovered in Northern part of Korean peninsula and chollima is one of the national symbols.
Impressiveness is one of the main characteristics of North Korea public architecture. The biggest stadium of the world is in fact Rŭngrado May First Stadium of Pyongyang (릉라도 5월1일경기장, 1989). Every year during springtime in this stadium Arirang mass games (아리랑 축제) are arranged which are very famous for the choreographies of dancers and mosaic pictures of the tiers. “Dear Leader” Kim Jong-il watches Arirang as well together with his daughter Sul-Song who always goes with him as his secretary. We know very few and uncertain news about Sul-Song. Rumour has it that she is very beautiful, tall and long-haired, very intelligent. Her name means “Snow Pine Tree” (雪松) and it was decided by her grandfather Kim Il-Sung. She follows her father on his journeys by armoured trains and she is in charge of literary affairs for government.
We know these few vague news only about North Korea life. Although empty and foggy roads of Pyongyang still hide a lot of secrets. For this reason North Korea is one of the last mysteries of Far East, perhaps the last one. The last mystery of nowadays world which loses its cultures forever by mixing up more and more East with West. The last mystery, who knows until when. Until the day when a long-awaited everyday train will leave from Seoul for Pyongyang.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

.
.

.

동양 최후의 미스테리, 북한

현대 사회의 발전된 기술에 따른 정보력은 우리들에게 ‘비밀’ 이라는 단어를 무색하게 만든다. 옛날 서양 사람들에게는 머나먼 동양의 문화가 신비로울 수 밖에 없었다. 하지만 오늘날에는 인터넷을 통해 궁금해 하는 많은 것들이 밝혀지고 예술, 건축 그리고 음악 분야의 동, 서양간 문화 차이가 사라지고 있다. 이럼에도 동양에는 아직까지도 밝혀지지 않은 베일에 쌓인 국가, ‘북한’이 있다. 북한에 대해서는 소수의 정보만 알려졌을 뿐, 대부분은 비밀리에 묻혀있다.
1948년 일본 식민통치에 이어 한국은 제2차 세계대전 후 분단이라는 아픈 역사 속에 ‘조선 민주주의 인민 공화국’(북한)과 남한으로 나누어지게 된다.
지금 시대에 알려진 북한에 대한 정보는 단순 추정에 의한 것 또는 북한에 탈출한 몇몇 사람들의 증언에 의한 것 뿐이다. 한반도를 반으로 가르고 있는 38선의 북쪽, 북한에 대한 자세한 정보는 알 수 없다. 세계로부터 고립된 북한은 시대적으로 가장 뒤쳐져 있다고 해도 과언이 아니다.
위성으로 찍은 한반도의 야경 사진을 살펴보면 아래쪽 남한은 불빛이 찬란하지만, 위쪽 북한은 칠흙 같은 어둠으로 덮여있다. 이렇듯 어둠과 베일에 둘러 쌓인 북한의 현재 모습과는 달리 과거에 대해서는 그나마 우리가 접할 수 있는 건축 정보들이 있다.
북한의 수도는 ‘평양’이라는 도시이다. 평양은 오래 전 고구려(37BC - 668AD) 왕조 시대의 수도이기도 해 평양과 그 주변 도시에서는 한국의 과거 모습들을 살펴볼 수 있는 유적들을 찾아볼 수 있다. 평양의 근교 도시에는 유네스코(UNESCO) 세계 역사 유물로 지정 된 바 있는 고구려 왕조 시대의 고분이 있는데, 그 내벽에 그려진 벽화들은 당 시대 사람들의 삶을 다채로운 색으로 잘 표현하고 있다.
북한 건축의 상징인 ‘류경호텔’은 ‘버드나무의 수도’라는 뜻을 가진 평양의 역사적 이름인 ‘류경’에서 따 온 것인데 이는 현재까지도 평양에 수많은 버드나무들이 심어져 있는 것에서 그 이유를 찾을 수 있다.
1987년부터 현재까지 완공 되지 않은 상태로 남아 있는 이 ‘류경호텔’은 피라미드 형식으로 높이가 330 미터에 달하며 북한에서 가장 높은 빌딩이자 북한의 상징이 되었다. 현대적인 양식도 아니고 그렇다고 예전의 건축 양식을 보여주는 것도 아닌 어중간한 상태로 남아있다.
고구려 왕조 시대의 고분 외에 평양에는 고구려 문화의 흔적들을 여기저기서 접할 수 있다. 동쪽에 흐르고 있는 대동강 주변에는 고구려 평양성의 동문이었던 ‘대동문’이 있는데 이는 화강암을 사용하여 아치형식으로 지어졌다. 서쪽 보통강 기슭에 지어진 ‘보통문’은 고구려 평양성의 서대문이었으며 한국 전쟁 후 재건축 되었고 현존하는 한반도 성문 가운데에 가장 오래되었다.
이렇듯 과거의 유물 외에도 북한에서는 북한 특유의‘주체 사상과 이데올로기’의 의미를 지닌 기념비적인 건물들 또한 찾아볼 수 있다. 1982년 김일성 70세 생일에 맞춰 건립된 북한의 국립도서관 ‘인민대학습당’이 대표작인데 ‘스탈린식 건축’을 따르는 반면 한 덩어리를 이루는 34개의 지붕에 녹색 청기와를 앉혀 전통미까지 살렸다.
1989년 건립된 세계에서 가장 거대한 경기장인 ‘릉라도 5월 1일 경기장’ 등, 몇몇의 북한 건축물들은 묘한 특색을 남긴다. 1961년 만수 언덕에 세워진 천리마 조각상은 한국 신화에 등장하는 ‘쉬지 않고 천리를 달릴 수 있는 말’인 ‘천리마’를 형상화한 것으로 북한의 상징이라 할 수 있다.
세계 유일의 분단국가 한반도. 남한과 북한이 통일되어 많은 사람들이 갈망하는 서울과 평양을 왕복하는 열차가 언제부터 달리게 될 수 있을까.

플로리아노 테라노

higashishinbun@aol.com

2010-06-30T16:07:00.016+02:00

영생의 뿌리, 인삼

인간에게는 똑같은 로망이 있다. 바다나 땅에서 건강을 유지하며 살수 있거나 시간을 거슬러서라도 젊음을 유지할 수 있는 보약을 찾는 것이다. 동양에서는 이 불멸의 행복이 인삼의 두터운 뿌리에 있다. 인삼은 중국 북부지방과 한국, 일본, 시베리아 동부에서 남부지방까지, 그리고 베트남에서 재배되며 미국 북부에도 자생하는 하나의 품종이 있다.
이처럼 인삼을 재배하는 곳은 많지만 이 중에서도 한국의 인삼(수삼)이 품질 면에서 최고로 손꼽힌다. 인삼의 식물학적 특성의 하나는 재배지에 대한 선택성이 °하여 기후나 토질 등의 자연환경이 적당하지 않은 곳에서는 적응시켜서 생육시키는 것이 아주 곤란하다는 점이다. 설령 생육된다 하더라도 생산된 인삼의 형태·품질·약효에 현저한 차이가 있다. 이런 점에서 한국이 인삼 생산의 최적지라고 인정되어 인삼 종주국으로서의 전통을 지키고 있다.
인삼(人蔘)은 중국어로 사람을 가리키는 인(人)자에 뿌리를 가리키는 삼(蔘)의 합성어이다. (참고로 인삼의 한국 고유의 이름은 ‘심’이지만, 어원 및 시작된 연대는 알 수 없다) 인삼은 실제로 그 모양이 사람의 몸과 매우 흡사하다. 그 모양만으로도 인삼은 인삼은 예로부터 불로·장생·익기(益氣)·경신(輕身)의 명약으로 일컬어진다.
한국에서 재배되는 인삼의 뿌리는 비대근(肥大根)으로 원뿌리와 2~5개의 지근(支根)으로 되어 있고 미황백색이다. 인삼의 뿌리에 음과 양이 존재한다면 원뿌리를 남성으로 불 수 있겠다. 인삼의 뿌리에서 음양의 조화는 중국의 타이지 (Taiji) 의 음양이론이 인삼에도 존재한다는 것을 알 수 있다.
한국에사 인삼을 재배하기 시작한 것은 조선시대였으나 문헌상으로는 이미 통일신라 시대나 그 전 삼국시대 때에 이미 재배한 것으로 보여진다. (1,500여 년 전 중국 양나라 때 의학서적인 <신농본초경집> 및 <명의별록>에 백제·고려의 인삼에 관한 기록이 처음 보이며 《양서(梁書)》 본기(本紀)에도 무제시대(武帝時代)에 고구려 및 백제가 자주 인삼을 조공하였다는 기록이 있다). 한국에서 인삼재배의 중심지는 전라남도에 위치한 모후산이다. 홍삼의 원료로 쓰이는 것은 인삼은 모두 6년근이 주로 사용되어 동체 길이 7~10cm, 무게 80g 정도를 재배하는 데도 6년의 세월이 필요하다.
그렇다면 사람들은 왜 그들의 삶에서 인삼을 찾아야만 할 것인가 ? 우리가 들었던 이 불멸의 인삼 이야기들이 모두가 사실일 수는 없다. 단 한가지 확실한 것은 인삼을 찾는 이들이 불멸을 위해 이를 찾는 것이 아니라 건°을 더 낫게 하기 위해서 찾는다는 것이다.
한국의 대표적인 보양음식이자 한약재인 홍삼(紅蔘)은 일단 수삼을 물로 깨끗하게 씻는다. 그 후 일정한 용기에 넣어 가열된 수증기를 이용하여, 크기에 따라 일정시간 찐다. 증삼된 것은 1차 열풍건조 후부터는 태양열을 이용하거나 기타 방법으로 수분이 12.5~13.5% 정도 될 때까지 건조하며 잔뿌리를 따내고 모양을 가다듬어, 등급별로 선별하여 같은 등급은 개체의 크기와 중량별로 선별하여 진공포장한다. 홍삼은 중추신경에 대해서 진정작용과 흥분작용이 있으며, 순환계에 작용하여 고혈압이나 동맥경화의 예방효과가 있다. 그러면서도 혈당치를 저하시켜 주고, 간을 보호하며, 내분비계에 작용하여 생식효과에 유효하게 작용한다.
홍삼의 효과 중 중요한 것은 어댑토겐 (adaptogen) 효과로서 주위 환경으로부터 오는 각종 유해작용인 누병(淚病), 각종 스트레스 등에 대해 방어능력을 증가시켜 생체가 보다 쉽게 적응하도록 하는 능력이 있음이 과학적으로 입증되고 있다. (오케이이탈리아, 자료출처 : 위키피디아) .

플로리아노 테라노

higashishinbun@aol.com

2010-04-26T11:23:00.026+02:00

..
.

香道

.
宗教から毎日の生活まで、東アジアにおける香

香煙が東アジアの寺院を包み込み香の香りが漂っている。香煙は常に人と神、現世と天界を結ぶ役目をしてきた。香道とは香の芸道および文化を意味し、韓国や中国にも深く根付いている。また香の道とは、香の素材である良質な天然樹脂を中国や東南アジアから中東やローマ帝国時代以降のヨーロッパへ運んでいた道、かつてのシルクロードでもある。最も貴重な香、沈香（じんこう）“水中に沈む香”は、東南アジアや特にベトナムに樹勢しているアガールウッドから採れた良質な樹脂から作られている。また伽羅（きゃら）という、アガールウッドの香料の一種でさらに珍しく貴重なものもある。アガールウッドは腐敗させることで自然と芳香が放たれる性質がある。香りは苦悩や不調を取り除く植物療法として効果があり、香は浄化や、病気の回復など常に治療の目的にも使用されてきた。
香は仏教には欠かせない物であり、寺院では香をたいて祈祷する。祈祷は香煙により神（仏）に届くとされている。香の形には最も普及されている細長いタイプのもの、または香港の有名なMan Mo寺院 (文武廟) にある様な持続性のある大きな渦巻き状のタイプもある。どの寺院の入り口にも多種多様な香炉が置かれている。
香の文化は、東アジア諸国で様々な形で広がっていった。韓国では彫刻家の作品、Cheongiaという青磁の香炉が作られている。Baekjie王朝時代（백제、紀元前18年～西暦660年）の6世紀頃に遡るが、金色の蓮のつぼみの上に不死鳥が施されたとても華麗で贅沢な作りの香炉は韓国芸術の象徴の一つである。この香炉は現在、韓国の国宝としてBuyeo国立美術館に保管されている。（n.287）
香炉の象徴学では仏教徒と道教徒の要素は統一性があるとの思想があり、韓国の磁器の芸術家はGoryeo（고려、918-1392）時代の香炉のように自然の中にある形を活かした香炉を形成する。代表的な作品としてライオンの口から香煙がでる形や、Tugak技法で穴の開いた球体を花の上に乗せた作品は国宝として韓国国立美術館に保管されている。（ｎ.95）
6世紀には仏教の普及に伴い、日本を含む東アジア全土にお香の文化が発展した。一つの伝説がある　－　595年、推古皇后が皇后になられて3年目の年に1本の木が淡路島の海岸に流れ着いた。その木は火の近くに置かれると周囲にすばらしい香りを放ったと言われている。
その伝説後、聖武天皇の皇后である光明皇后（701-760）は、聖武天皇が崩御された756年、奈良東大寺に建てられた正倉院に名香木の蘭著待（らんじゃたい）を保管している。
この蘭著待は聖武天皇によって中国から渡来したが、起源はおそらくベトナムかラオスだと言われている。また東大寺の高価な沈香の一片は、足利義政、織田信長、徳川家康、この3人の権力者だけが所持することを許されていた。
平安時代（794－1185）日本の香の文化は、香の師が存在するまさに芸術の粋に達した洗練されたものであった。当時貴族の間で広まった源氏香とは組み香の名前の一つ。香の香りをかぎ分けその名前を当てる遊びである。源氏香とは紫式部の源氏物語の各帖から名前が付けられている。
室町時代（1336－1573）には、香は個人的に信仰の篤い富裕層に扱われるようになり、富と権力の象徴に変化していく。沈香の何種類かの値段は金の値段を超えるまでになり、そのため高価な香を持っていることが権力があると見なされていた。ある伝説に、一人の大名が彼の権力を知らしめるため、全領土に一度に500ｸﾞﾗﾑ以上もの純粋な沈香をたいたといわれている。
実際も、武士は戦に行く前、最高の威信を保つために香の香りを満たした兜を使用していた。きっと敵に首を刎ねられた時、芳香が放たれたことであろう。
今日でも香は東アジアの文化には必要不可欠なものであり、寺院だけでなく一般家庭でも宗教に関係なく日々の生活の中で使われている。毎日香は、1965年設立の日本の会社、株式会社日本香堂（www.nipponkodo.com ）の製品で、日本および世界で一番売られているお線香である。日本香堂は神仏用だけでなくアロマ用としても多種の香を生産している。製法は桃山時代（1568－1603）の伝統的な製法にヒントを得て、現代の製法と融合させて作られている。2005年より香の製造販売会社の中で韓国最大手のManbokhyang Dang (萬福香堂) 社（www.mbhd.co.kr ）が日本香堂グループの傘下に入った。彼らは香りの文化を忘れつつある欧米諸国を見て、他の東アジア諸国のように、韓国での芸術や宗教においての香の重要性を見直す取り組みを行っている。

フロリアーノ・テッラーノ

higashishinbun@aol.com

2010-04-19T11:57:00.050+02:00

. .

Fire water

Korean culture of drinking

Once upon a time there was a king in Korea who made his girl drink an intoxicating liquor to have many babies. A baby was born and his name was Sul which indicates alcoholic beverages in Korean. The historical poem Jewang Ungi (제왕운기 “Rhymed Chronicles of Sovereigns”) written in 1287 by Yi Seung-hyu (李承休) tells this story. Sul (술) is a compound of su (수 hanja 水 “water”) and bul (불 hanja 火“fire”) which literally means “fire water”.
Alcoholic drinks are very important in Korean culture. There are many kinds of spirits and time for drinking is always right, above all during or after dinner. Drinking together helps along friendship and it makes people speak in a more open way. In Korea drinking has its own respect and politeness rules like in other Far East countries. People who pour alcoholic drink hold the bottle with both hands and people who take drink hold the glass with both hands. This gesture derived from holding the loose sleeves of hanbok by hand to shy away from putting them in dish or on table. Unlike Japan, in Korea pouring drink before the guest’s glass is completely empty is rudeness. Not filling the empty glass again leaving guest without drink is rudeness as well.
Korean alcoholic beverages are made from various ingredients. In Korea like in China, in Japan and in Vietnam rice is the primary ingredient of spirits. Cheongju (청주 “clear wine”) is similar to Japanese sake for alcohol content and look. Soju (소주 “burned liquor”) is Korean national drink. It is traditionally obtained from rice distillate nevertheless also from grain, barley and sweet potatoes especially when the government of Korea between 1965 and 1991 denied use of grain to obtain soju since the Koreans used almost all rice foodstuffs for making liquor! Soju is the most widely consumed beverage in Korea and it is estimated that an adult Korean consumes nearly 90 bottles of soju yearly. Alcohol content of soju is from 20% to 45% and it is similar to Chinese shaojiu and Japanese shōchū.
History of soju is linked with Mongol invasion of Korea (1231 – 1270). The Mongols learned distillation of alcohol from Persian people during their invasion of West. There are various brands of soju. Jinro is surely the most popular brand and its Chamisul (참이슬 “Real dew”) is very common. Recently Cheoum Cheoreom (처음처럼 “Like the first time”) soju of Japan-born Korean brand Lotte is increasing in sales. There are lots of local soju brands like C1 Soju of Busan.
Young people especially like makgeolli (막걸리), a white sweet liquor obtained from fermentation of boiled rice and water which has an alcohol content of around 7%. Makgeolli was initially drunk by farmers and it is traditionally served in a bowl from which cups are filled by a ladle. Very similar liquors are Chinese choujiu and Japanese doburoku and nigorizake.
In Korea like in China and in Japan there are various flower and fruit wines containing fermented rice. Chrysanthemum wine gukhwaju (국화주) is the most popular flower wine during autumn, maehwaju (매화주) is the wine obtained from maesil flower, the Asian prunus mume which blossoms with infinite flower buds in springtime. Other flower wines are dohwaju (桃花酒) - obtained from peach flowers – and dugyeonju (두견주) a sweet wine containing petals of azalea produced in central western province Chungcheong-do.
Maesilju (매실주) is the fruit wine obtained from maesil; it is very sweet and a little alcoholic. Maesilju is common also in Japan - umeshu - in China - meijiu - and in Taiwan - wumeijiu - and it is drunk with water or on the rocks. Bokbunjaju (복분자주) is the wine of Korean black raspberry bokbunja which is slightly sour and has an alcohol content of 15-19%. Insamju (인삼주) is the liquor of ginseng root with medicinal characteristics.
Beer – introduced to Korea by Westerners – has got three most relevant brands in Korea: Cass, Hite and OB Oriental Brewery. OB is the most popular beer and it has a slightly sweet flavour since it contains rice like other Far East beers. Recently North Korea produces its own national beer Taedonggang which is named after the Taedong River which runs through Pyongyang.
Well then we are spoilt for choice of drinking in Korea! Therefore let’s say geonbae (건배) or wihayeo (위하여) and let’s drink up a cup of delicious soju, won-syat (원샷) "one shot" obviously!

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

한국의 술

한국의 술은 어디서 비롯되었을까? 우리문헌에 나타나는 술 이야기는 제왕운기에 처음으로 나타난다. '하백의 딸 유화가 해모수의 꾀에 속아 술에 만취된 후 해모수의 아이를 잉태하였는데 그가 주몽이라는 이야기'이다. 다시 말해 술이 남녀가 인연을 갖어 고구려의 역사가 시작되었다는 이야기이다. (제왕운기* : 고려 후기인 1287년(충렬 13)에 이승휴(李承休)가 중국과 한국의 역사를 운율시 형식으로 쓴 책).
‘술(酒)’ 이라는 단어는 물 수(水)자와 불 화(火)자가 합쳐진 것으로 “뜨거운 물” 이라는 뜻을 담고 있다.
술 문화는 한국사회에서 빠질 수 없는 중요한 문화 중 하나다. 술은 한국사회에서 식사 도중이나 식사 후에 빼놓을 수 없다.
동서양을 막론하고 ‘술’이라는 것은 사람 사이를 가깝게 해 주지만 한국의 술 문화는 그들의 문화만큼이나 예의범절을 중요시 한다. 술병을 들고 술을 따라줄 때에는 항상 두 손으로 따라 주어야 하며 이와 마찬가지도 술을 받는 사람도 두 손으로 받도록 해야 한다. (손윗사람은 경우에 따라 한 손으로 받기도 한다.) 이 예의범절은 ‘한복’의 긴 소매가 접시나 탁자 위에 떨어지지 않도록 하기 위한 행동에서 비롯되어 정착되었다. 또한 한국에서는 일본과는 달리 상대방이 잔을 비우기 전에 첨잔하는 것 또한 예의가 아니며 상대방의 잔이 비었을 경우 상대방이 채워주어야 한다.
한국의 술은 여러 가지 재료로 양조된다. 옛날부터 동아시아국가에서는 술의 주 원료로 곡물을 많이 사용해왔다. 한국에서 가장 먼저 빚은 술은 ‘탁주(濁酒)’인데 찹쌀 ·멥쌀 ·보리 ·밀가루 등을 쪄서 누룩과 물을 섞어 발효시킨 것으로 고조선 시대부터 양조해 마셨을 것으로 추정된다. 탁주와 뿌리를 같이 하는 것은 ‘청주(淸酒)’로서 일본의 사케와 맛과 색 역시 비슷하다. 탁주와 청주 외에 한국 사람들에게 가장 사랑받는 술은 단연 ‘소주’ (燒酒)이다.
‘청주’와 ‘탁주’ 그리고 ‘소주’를 비교하자면 청주와 탁주는 발효시키는 쌀눈에 있는 일부 성분이 숙취를 일으켜 마신 뒤 뒷머리가 아파오는 등 숙취를 일으키는 반면 소주는 증류수인만큼 뒤끝이 깨끗하다. 탁주는 텁텁하고 청주는 깔끔하며 소주는 담백하다.
소주는 성인 1인 기준으로 일년에 90병이 소비되며 소주에는 알코올 성분이 20%~45% 정도가 함유되어 있어 중국의 sahojiu 와 일본의 shōchū 와 비슷하다.
소주는 몽골인이 페르시아에서 이슬람교를 받아들여오면서 같이 가져와 아시아에 전파되었다. 한국에서도 자체적인 소주 제작이 이루어졌었지만, 몽골과의 접촉이 많던 고려시대 이후 외부에서 들어온 흔히 말하는 ‘아라키’주에 의해 소주 양조가 발달한다.
한국에는 많은 종류의 소주가 있다. 주식회사 ‘진로’ 의 상표는 주류업계에서 가장 유명하며, 진로에서 생산되는 ‘참이슬’ 은 일반적으로 통용되는 소주 이름이다. 최근 새로 나온 ‘처음처럼’ 소주는 일본계 한국 브랜드 ‘롯데’ 에서 생산되어 주가를 올리고 있다. 또한 한국의 여러 지방에서는 부산의 ‘C1’과 같은 각개 지방 브랜드의 소주가 인기가 있다.
한국을 비롯한 동아시아에서는 다양한 꽃과 과일을 사용해 술을 만들기도 한다. ‘국화주’는 가을에 가장 유행하는 꽃인 국화를 사용하고 ‘매화주’ 는 봄철 prunus mume 라는 나무에서 자라는 매실꽃을 주원료로 한다. 또한 복숭아 꽃으로 만든 ‘도화주’, 한국의 서쪽 지방 충청도에서 진달래 꽃잎을 원료로 하여 만드는 ‘두견주’ 라는 술도 있다.
매실을 열매를 주원료로 하여 달콤한 맛을 내는 ‘매실주’ 는 일본의 umeshu와 중국의 meijiu 그리고 대만의 wumeijiu 라는 이름으로 한국 뿐만 아니라 다른 아시아 나라에서도 인기를 끌고 있는 술이다. 반면 ‘복분자주’ 는 한국의 ‘복분자’ 라는 검은 산딸기를 주원료로 하며 ‘인삼주’ 는 인삼을 주원료로 하고 의학적 용도로도 사용된다.
이 외에 한국에도 맥주가 사랑받는 술 중 하나인 ‘카스’ 와 ‘하이트’ 그리고 ‘오비’ 라는 세 가지의 대표적인 브랜드가 있다. 이 중에서 ‘오비’는 동부 유럽의 맥주와 같은 성분을 사용해 약간은 시면서도 달콤한 맛을 지닌다. 한국(남한) 뿐 아니라 북한에도 대표적인 맥주가 있는데 그들만의 고유 브랜드인 ‘대동강’ 맥주는 평양을 가로질러 흐르는 태동강의 이름에서 따온 것으로 로이터통신이 '최고품질의 맥주 중 하나'라고 평가한 바 있다.
서술했듯이 한국의 술 브랜드는 다양하고 매력이 있다. 이제는 ‘건배’ 또는 ‘위하여’ 를 외치며 달콤한 소주를 한번 맛 봐보자.

플로리아노 테라노

higashishinbun@aol.com

2010-03-23T16:18:00.042+01:00

The harmony of opposites

Symbols in the culture of Korea

Symbols are important in all the cultures. They express concepts and passions of a whole country with incisive and elegant graphics. In Far East national flags of Taiwan, Japan and Korea have all got symbols: the sun - red in the flag of Japan and white in the flag of Taiwan - and taijitu (太極圖) – the representation of Taoist and Confucian concept of yin and yang opposites – which is present in Korean national flag. During Qing Dynasty China has got a national flag with the imperial dragon and the flaming pearl on a yellow background which is the colour of Manchu Dynasty. Under communism China changed its national flag and adopted the red flag with golden stars of nowadays. Korea national flag taegeukgi (태극기) – used firstly by ambassador Bak Yeong-hyo during his diplomatic mission to Japan in 1882 - has taeguk (태극) in its centre i.e. the Korean variant of Chinese taijitu which was introduced by Ming period author Lai Zhide (來知德, 1525-1604). Like taijitu taeguk symbolizes yin and yang which are opposite and tied together to create the harmonic and continuous circle. Taeguk is coloured with blue and red instead of black and white of Chinese taijitu and the symmetrical patterns are horizontal instead of the vertical patterns of Chinese symbol. Nevertheless the meaning of taeguk is the same as taijitu i. e. blue pattern (eum) symbolizes earth, femininity, night and moon, the red pattern (yang) symbolizes heaven, manhood, day and sun. Korean Air logo is another version of taeguk with the red and blue patterns separated by a white strip. Samtaeguk (삼태극) is a three-colours version of taeguk with the addition of yellow which represents humanity. Perhaps it derivates from Japanese Shinto symbol mitsudomoe (三つ巴) which signifies just humanity, earth and heaven together and which is linked up with Shinto war deity Hachiman. Mitsudomoe is also in the historical flag of Jeju-do island. In taegeukgi beside taeguk there are palgwae (Chinese ba gua, 八卦) i. e. four of eight trigrams of I Ching (易經, “Book of Changes”). The unbroken lines of ba qua represent yang, the broken lines represent yin and they are combined in trigrams groups. The trigrams of Korean flag are: ☰ (geon, 건) in the top left corner, symbol of sky, spring, east, humanity, father, metal and justice), ☲ (ri, 리) in the bottom left corner, symbol of sun, autumn, South, courtesy, son, fire, wisdom and yang, ☵ (gam, 감) in the top right corner, symbol of moon, winter, North, intelligence, daughter, water, vitality and yin) and ☷ (gon, 곤) in the bottom right corner, symbol of earth, summer, West, righteousness, mother and fertility. There are ba qua in historical flags of Vietnam before communism as well. Another Korean symbol derived from Chinese culture signifies the unity of opposites as well: hanja “double happiness” character hee (Chinese shuāngxǐ, 囍, composed of double “happiness” character喜). In Korea as in China this symbol is associated with Lunar New Year and with marriage and it is almost always red which is the colour of good look and life. Due to its double character shape it’s the symbol of the indivisible and harmonic married couple just like taijitu circle. The hibiscus syriacus mugunghwa (무궁화) is the national flower of Korea. The name of this flower native to Asia derived from mugung which means “immortality” and it is symbol of eternity and long life. In fact Korea is described as the country of “splendid” rivers, of mountains and of hibiscus syriacus in national anthem “Song of Love for the Country” (Aegukga, 애국가). Flower is not the only Korean symbol inspired by nature. Animals have got a profound symbolic meaning as well. Fish and bat appear very often in Korean paintings and sculptures. Fish is a Buddhist symbol of possibility to reach Nirvana and to overcome death since it is the only animal which sleeps and dies with open eyes. It often recurs as a symbol in Buddhist temples like Bulguksa in which on the outside there is a wooden gong in the shape of fish. Under the small bells of some Korean Buddhist temples’ angular roofs there is a carved fish and as the story goes once upon a time one of these bronze fishes roamed around the world and in the end went back to its temple since it was homesick. In West bat is a negative symbol of darkness and evil whereas in Korea it is an animal of good wish. In fact Korean pok “bat” (박쥐) has got the same pronunciation of Chinese character of “good luck” and this animal is also a symbol of longevity since it is believed that it can live one thousand years. Obok is a drawing of 5 bats which signifies the five blessings i.e. longevity, health, wealth, love of virtue and natural death. For this reason there are images of bat on pillowcases, furniture or roof tiles. In Far East symbols’ universe is deepest than that of other world’s cultures. National flag of Korea is made of Confucian and Taoist taeguk symbol and other Korean symbols call to mind the opposite yin and yang which tie together to create earth and cosmos. There is no light without darkness, there is no day without night, there is nothing without its contrary. Opposites are always united. Forever and nowadays that’s the mysterious and fascinating meaning of taijitu, the “diagram of the supreme ultimate”.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

대조의 조화

한국의 문화 상징

상징성은 소위 전 세계 문화에서 중요하게 다뤄진다. 이러한 상징성은 문자로 나타내기도 하고 그 부호 속에 담겨있는 실질적인 의미와 에너지를 나타내기도 한다. 대만, 일본 그리고 한국을 포함한 동북아시아에서의 국기에서는 아래와 같은 의미를 상징하고 있다: 일본국기와 대만국기는 태양의 형상을 표현하고 있고 일본은 적색을 대만은 백색을 사용하고 있다. 이 두 형상은 태극도의 모양을 닮아 있으며 도교와 유교의 중심 사상인 음과 양의 대조를 의미한다. 이는 대한민국의 국기에서도 잘 나타나 있다. 그럼 먼저 중국 국기에 대해서 살펴보자. 현재의 국기는 중국에 공산당이 탄생하면서 만들어진 것으로 붉은색 바탕에 노란색의 별이 그려진 것이지만 청나라 시대에는 현재와 다른 모양의 국기를 사용하고 있었다. 노란색 바탕에 푸른색용과 붉은 여의주가 수놓아진 모양 이였다. 이와 마찬가지로 만주국도 국기의 바탕으로 노란색을 이용했었다. 한편, 태극기가 처음으로 사용된 시기는 1882년으로 박영효가 일본에 수신사로 갔을 때 인데, 태극은 중국의 태극도의 변형된 모양으로, 명나라의 창시자중 한명인 래지덕(1525-1604)이 만든 것이다. 태극의 문양은 음과 양의 대조를 표현하는 것으로, 원안의 적색과 청색이 조화롭게 잘 표현되고 있다. 반면 태극도 에서는 백색과 흑색이 그 자리를 대신하고 있지만 같은 사상을 나타낸다. 다만 태극도 에서는 세로로 태극문양이 수 놓여진 반면에 태극기에는 가로로 수가 놓여져 있다. 청색은 음, 땅, 여성, 밤 그리고 달을 적색은 양, 하늘, 남성, 낯 그리고 태양을 의미한다. 대한항공의 로고도 태극의 또 다른 변형의 예이다. (적색과 청색 사이의 흰색은 상반부와 하반부를 구분하고 있다.) 삼태극은 원 태극문양에 노란색이 추가된 또 다른 변형이며 인간의 본질을 의미한다. 아마도 일본 종교 신토의 삼파 문양에서 유래되는 것으로 인간의 본질, 하늘, 땅을 나타내는 동시에 무예의 신인 하치만의 신성성도 포함하고 있다. 삼파 문양은 예전 제주도기 에서도 발견되기도 한다. 태극기의 네귀 에서는 사괘를 볼 수 있는데, 이는 역경(유학의 삼경 중 하나)에서 묘사하고 있는 팔괘(중국어의 八卦에서 전래된 말)를 표현하는 것이다. 태극 팔괘의 모양에서 선이 연속되는 것은 양을 의미, 끊어지는 것은 음을 의미하며 그리고 세 열이 합해져서 하나의 괘를 만들어 낸다. 그 형성은 다음과 같다: “건”은(왼쪽 위 가장자리에 위치) 하늘, 봄, 여름, 인간의 본질, 아버지, 돈과 정당성을 상징, “리”(왼쪽 아래 가장자리)태양, 가을, 남쪽, 친절, 아들, 불, 현명함과 양을 상징, “감”(오른쪽 위 가장자리에 위치) 달, 겨울, 북쪽, 지성, 딸, 물, 생명력과 음을 상징, 마지막으로”곤”(오른쪽 아래 가장자리에 위치)땅, 여름, 서쪽, 청렴, 어머니와 비옥함을 상징한다. 팔괘의 모양은 베트남이 공산주의가 되기 이전에 사용하던 국기에서도 찾아볼 수 있다. 이렇듯 의미가 대조되는 두 단어의 조합은 중국의 문화에서 유래되는 것으로 한국 문화에서도 보여진다: 한자 쌍“희” (중국어, shuāngxǐ, 囍, 기쁠 “희”를 두번 반복 해서 적은 것이다.) 이 단어는 중국과 마찬가지로 한국에서도 음력 설날에 사용되고, 결혼식을 축하하는 인사 말에도 사용된다. 그리고 붉은색이 행복을 상징한다는 이유로 단어의 색깔은 주로 붉은색이다. 이렇듯 두 단어의 조합은 태극도의 상징성인 조화와 비교되고 신랑 신부의 조화로운 결합을 의미한다. 중국의 히비스코과인 무궁화는 대한민국 나라꽃이다. 아시아지역에 분포한 꽃으로 원어 명은 무궁(불멸을 의미)에서 나온 것으로 영원과 장생을 상징한다. 그리고 대한민국 국가인 애국가는 조국을 위해 바치는 사랑의 노래라는 의미로 곡 속에 눈부시게 아름다운 강산과 무궁화가 잘 묘사 되어 있다. 위와 같이 동북아시아에서의 상징성의 존재는 매우 중요하며 그 어떤 지역의 나라들보다 깊게 성찰되었다고 볼 수 있다. 한국의 경우 유교와 도교를 아우르는 상징성을 가진 태극문양을 만들어 냈고, 크고 작은 넓은 의미로 음양의 대조와 천지창조를 의미한다. 어둠 없이는 빛이 존재하지 않고, 밤 없이는 낮이 존재하지 않는 것처럼 대조라는 상반되는 의미 없이는 그 무엇도 탄생되지 않는다. 그리고 최후에는 모든 대조의 성질을 가진 것은 합일로 태어나기 마련이다: 이와 같은 논리는 세계 최고의 문양인 태극도의 사상을 말하는 것으로 굉장히 의미 있고 매력적인 가르침으로 볼 수 있다.

플로리아노 테라노

higashishinbun@aol.com

. 번역: 정근영 jgyoung0252@gmail.com

2010-02-05T10:50:00.002+01:00

The last colours of hanbok

In Far East cheongsam or qipao (旗袍) is the national dress of China, kimono (着物) is one of the symbols of Japanese culture. The national dress of Korea is hanbok (한복 “Korean dress”) which is distinguished from the other Far Eastern traditional clothing by its loose and linear shapes and by its bright and brilliant colours. Curves shine through snug cuts in qipao – which is of Manchu origin - and in kimono. Hanbok instead hides the curves of men and of women under its loose shape.

Sober and refined elegance of hanbok is the fruit of a slow and gradual evolution of Three Kingdoms period clothing (57 BC– 668 AD). Even if nowadays cloth of this age doesn't hang over, we can look at some paintings of everyday life scenes of men and women wearing clothes very similar to hanbok in Goguryeo Kingdom tombs dating back to IV and VI centuries like in Muyongchong, the Tomb of the Dancers. In these paintings there is quite no difference between male and female clothing. In majority of tomb paintings both men and women wear clothes very similar to trousers which are “ancestors” of baji (바지), the lower part of male hanbok which is loose and comfortable to let men sit down easily on floor. Perhaps this kind of clothing is typical of Korean society during Goguryeo Kingdom which is profoundly influenced by China and it is made up of nomads who use horses to move. It's probably for the necessity to ride horses that baji is used by women as well, in fact that clothing is easy to wear on horseback too.

The distinction between male and female hanbok begins only in Unified Silla Korea (668 - 935). During this age chima (치마) - the full skirt of female hanbok - appears and jeogori (저고리) - the upper garment - begin to be longer in male hanbok. Korean art of this period is under the influence of Tang China and silk clothing begins to be used by royal court and upper class together with ceramics and paintings. Silk hanbok of nobles is sumptuous and brightly coloured. In Unified Silla Korea hanbok of upper classes must be woven with poor textile like cotton and hemp and its colours must be pale and weak like white, pink, light green and grey. Nowadays colours of hanbok depend on the age of people wearing it and on the occasion in which it is weared and its colours not depend on status anymore. Women wear a yellow jeogori and a red chima before wedding. After marriage ceremony women wear a green jeogori and the same red chima while curtseying father-in-law and mother-in-law. During the first birthday male children wear dol hanbok constituted by a pinkish jeogori and by a blue goreum (고름) - the coat ribbon which do up hanbok - female children wear a coloured flower patterned jeogori.
In Koryo period (918 - 1392) female hanbok changes under the influence of Mongol culture of China and otgoreum (옷고름) - the ornamental ribbon - appears together with baerae (배래), the curved sleeves which resemble the shape of Korean house roofs. In these years chima of female hanbok get shorter as baji of male hanbok. During Joseon dynasty (1392-1910) Chinese Confucian art influences Korean culture and hanbok as well. Nowadays the style of hanbok used in ceremonies and in traditional festivals is the same of Joseon Korea. By now Korean people - above all the youth - use to wear hanbok almost only during celebrations. Even if a more modern and easier to be worn model of hanbok has been created - for example by Korean stylist Bae Yeong-jin - almost all Korean people wear Western style clothings. I. e. suit and necktie for male employees, tailleur for female employees, jeans for young people. And so all the people - in East like in West - become more and more similar each other and without colours. When Westerners reached Far East - that Far East which had been remote and unknown for long time – they brought with them their clothing too. Orientals began to dress up as Westerners and they put their traditional clothes in the closet or they sold them to foreign tourists, who were desirous of souvenirs and exotic objects. Nowadays qipao is worn almost only by Chinese restaurant waitresses, Japanese people themselves are nearly surpised at looking at someone wearing kimono in the street and also in Korea hanbok is becoming only a “picture postcard” for tourists.
There is only a place in which hanbok is still used in everyday life. Chunghakdong (청학동마을) - a village on Mount Jirisan in Gyeongsangnam-do province of South-Eastern Korea - where 200 people still live. Inhabitants of this village - the name of which means "community where the crane of blue feathers lives" - still wear coloured hanbok in everyday life in a natural and pride way. They alone hold out bravely against the grey cities wearing shirts and trousers.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

한복의 마지막 색상

동아시아에는 각각 그 나라를 대표하는 전통 의상이 존재한다. 중국에는 ‘치파오’와 ‘청삼’이 있으며 일본에는 ‘기모노’가 있고 한국에는 바로 ‘한복’이 있다. 한복은 중국의 치파옹 약 일본의 기모노에 비해 약간은 헐렁하면서 선이 살아 있고 다채로운 색상으로 이루어져 있다.
중국의 치파오(만주지역이 기원)와 기노모가 선을 살린다면 한복은 완만한 형태를 이루어 남성과 여성의 곡선을 감추는 절제미를 가진다. 섬세하고 귀품 있는 한복의 형태는 삼국시대(고구려, 백제, 신라 시대. 기원 57년~서기 668년)에서 그 발전된 형태를 갖추었다.
비록 삼국시대의 한복은 현재 찾아볼 수 없을지라도 그 형태를 4~6세기의 고구려시대 고분 벽화에서 엿볼 수 있다. 고구려 시대 벽화에는 당시 사람들의 일상복을 그려놓았다. 벽화에 비추어 볼 때 당시 고구려 시대에 남성과 여성의 의복이 다를 것이 없을 듯 보인다. 대부분의 벽화에는 남성과 여성의 의복 중 남성 의복 하의는 활동성이 있는 헐렁하면서 편안한 형태를 가지고 있어 현재 바지의 선조라 할 수 있는 트라우즈(남자 양복바지)와 매우 유사하다.
고구려시대의 의복(한복)은 특히 중국의 영향을 받아 다채로운 변화가 일어난 것으로 보인다. 특히 고려 후기에는 원나라(몽고)의 영향을 받아 유목민의 의복 형태를 띄는데 여자도 ‘장고(長袴, 통이 넓고 발목에서 많은 여분을 나타내면서 끝단지 여민 형태)’ 를 가진 바지를 입었는데 말을 탈 때 편하게 하기 위함으로 추정된다. (* 현재의 한복은 남성과 여성의 옷이 크게 차이나지만 고구려 벽화에 남아있는 남녀의 의복은 그렇게 큰 차이를 보이지 않았다.)
남성과 여성 한복의 구분은 통일신라시대(668~935년)에 시작된다. 이 시대에 여성의 한복에는 치마가 나타나며 남성의 한복에는 저고리가 길어지기 시작한다. 통일신라시내에는 한국의 문화가 당나라의 영향을 많이 받게 되는데 통일신라의 기본복식 구조에 새로운 당나라의 복식제도의 일부가 합쳐져 발전하게 된다. 또한 왕족은 비단으로 한복을 만들고 의복에 자수를 하거나 그림을 그려 넣으며 호화롭고 밝은 색상으로 치장된다. 비해 양반(귀족)들의 의복은 비단에 비해 질적으로 낮은 목화와 삼 등으로 짜여져야만 했고 색상은 하얀색과 분홍색, 연두색 그리고 회색 같은 옅으며 화려치 않은 생삭으로 치장되어야만 했다. 당시에는 한복의 색상은 계급과 나이 그리고 직급에 따라 결정되었다.
여자들은 결혼 전과 후에 저고리의 색상이 달랐는데 혼례(결혼)를 치르기 전에는 노란 저고리와 빨간 치마를 입고 혼례 후에는 녹색 저고리와 빨간 치마를 입었으며 시집에서 몇 일동안 머무는 것이 관례였다. (* 남자들의 혼례 여부는 상투(복두를 통해 머리를 감아올리는 것)로 알아볼 수 있었는데 혼례를 올린 후에 상투를 틀었다.)
아이들의 돌빔(돌옷)도 구분이 있었는데 남자아이 돌빔은 분홍빛 저고리와 파란 고름으로 이루어졌으며 여자아이 돌빔은 꽃무늬가 있는 저고리가 있었다.
고려시대(918~1392)에는 몽골문화의 영향을 받아 여자한복의 형태가 변화된다. 옷고름 (저고리를 여미는 리본 모양의 헝겊 끈)이 나타나며 배래(가옥 지붕 모양으로 소매 아래쪽에 불룩하게 둥글린 부분) 형상을 가진다. 남성 바지와 함께 여성 치마의 길이도 짧아진다.
조선왕조시대(1392~1910)에는 중국 유교문화의 영향을 강하게 받는데 이는 한복에도 큰영향을 준다. 근대에서 현재까지 한국 전통 축제나 의복으로 사용되는 한복의 형태는 조선왕조시대의 것이다.
현대생활에서 ‘한복’이라 함은 한국에서 명절이나 결혼식 등에서만 사용되는 의복이며 좀 더 세련되고 편안한 형태인 ‘개량한복’이 만들어지기도 하지만 일상생활에서는 양복, 여성복, 청바지 등 대부분이 일반 서양 의복을 착용한다. 이와 같이 한국을 비롯해 동양 사람들은 그들의 전통 없이 서양의 문화에 더욱 더 동화되고 있다. 동양사람들은 서양사람들처럼 입고 그들의 전통 의상들을 옷장에 가두어 놓거나 외국 관광객들에게 선물을 하고 있어 아쉽다. 중국의 치파오는 중국식당 웨이트리스가 입은 모습만을 볼 수 있고 일본 사람들은 거리에서 누군가가 기노모를 입은 모습을 보며 놀람을 금치 못하고 한국에서는 관광객용 엽서사진에서 한복을 만나볼 수 있다.
한국에는 한복을 매일 입고 사는 ‘청학동마을’이라는 곳이 있는데 한국(남한)의 남동쪽인 경상남도의 지리산 기슭에 위치하며 200명 정도의 주민이 살고 있다. ‘청학동마을’은 ‘옛부터 사람이 살기 가장 좋은 이상향의 마을’을 지칭하는 이름으로 이 마을에서는 아직도 전통적인 차림을 고수하며 마을 사람들의 복식이나 두발은 조선시대의 형태를 그대로 지니고 있다.

플로리아노 테라노

higashishinbun@aol.com

2009-12-15T17:07:00.004+01:00

Cio-Cio-San,

the Japanese soul

of Madama Butterfly

Madama Butterfly is well-known in the world as one of Italian opera pieces for excellence. Its subtitle is “Japanese tragedy”. Which is really “Japanese” in Puccini’s Butterfly? Little but significant signs.
Visual signs in the opera historic posters which call to mind the Japanese prints ukiyo-e.
Theatrical signs in the plot and in some characters – like for example zio Bonzo - which resemble those of Japanese theatre.
Musical signs like pentatonic scale used in some parts of the score which is a reference mark of Japanese classical music such as in Turandot pentatonic scale is a reference mark of Chinese classical music.
The presence of these signs of Japanese artistic tradition together with the Japanese setting and with the plot are some of the reasons why Madama Butterfly has been such famous in Japan.
Memorable stage performance by soprano Miura Tamaki and direction by Asari Keita show a “Japanese style” Madama Butterfly.
Cio-Cio-San, the Japanese soul of Madama Butterfly is a journey to Japanese sources of Puccini’s opera.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

蝶々さん、

日本人の心を表現した『蝶々夫人』

『マダム・バタフライ』は世界中で知られている優れたイタリアオペラの中の一つである。
オペラのサブタイトルは『日本人の悲劇』。マダム・バタフライに込められた真の日本とは何であろうか？プッチーニの『マダム・バタフライ』には日本文化の要素が多く取り入れられている。
当時の宣伝用ポスターは日本の浮世絵をヒントに書かれたものであり、舞台では日本劇にみられるような筋立てや登場人物がみられる。
音楽には日本の伝統唱歌が多く使用され、東洋音楽の特徴でもある５音音階を取り入れて作曲されている。『マダム・バタフライ』に使用されている５音音階は日本の音階からヒントを得ておりまた同じように『トゥーランドット』も中国の音階からヒントを得て作曲されている。『マダム・バタフライ』は日本で多くの成功を収めたがそれは単に日本を舞台としたオペラだからではなく、日本の伝統芸術を多く取り入れた作品だからであろう。
『マダム・バタフライ』の上演にあたり忘れられないのが蝶々夫人の当たり役であったソプラノ歌手三浦環と演出家の浅利慶太である。
「蝶々さん、日本人の心を表現した『蝶々夫人』」はプッチーニの『マダム・バタフライ』から日本文化を探る旅である。

フロリアーノ・テッラーノ

higashishinbun@aol.com

2009-11-27T16:35:00.014+01:00

L’Epoca Shōwa,

l’impero più lungo

Guerra e pace, miseria e ricchezza
negli anni che hanno costruito

il Giappone di oggi

L’epoca Shōwa è il periodo di regno più lungo nella storia dell’Impero giapponese. Il tennō Hirohito regna per 63 anni dal 25 dicembre 1926 al 7 gennaio 1989. Nel corso di questi anni - una vera a propria vita - il Giappone conosce il sogno di un impero grande come l’Estremo Oriente, la guerra, la bomba atomica, la fine e l’inizio della vita, l’occupazione americana, lo sviluppo e il boom dell’industria e dei consumi, il secondo posto come superpotenza mondiale.
Protagonista e simbolo di questa epoca di luci ed ombre è l’imperatore Hirohito (裕仁, 1901 - 1989) , talvolta in secondo piano ma sempre in scena. Il suo primo discorso carico di speranze per la pace mondiale – Shōwa significa “pace illuminata” - sarà dopo pochissimi anni smentito dalla guerra prima di gloriosa conquista poi di disperata difesa iniziata dal Giappone. Un Giappone annientato dai bombardamenti per il quale la voce umana dell’imperatore alla radio il 15 agosto 1945 non più “figlio del cielo” ma solo capo di una nazione atterrata è l’ultimo, mortale colpo alle spalle.
Anni dopo nel 1975 – crudele ironia della storia – una foto ritrae Hirohito a Disneyland insieme a Mickey Mouse durante la sua visita negli Usa. Dai primi anni dell’epoca Shōwa, quando i giapponesi si vantano di essere i sudditi dell’ultimo imperatore-dio, agli anni centrali, quando l’imperatore ammette di essere solo un uomo e non una divinità in terra, il Giappone affronta la più grande crisi dell’anima della sua storia millenaria. Da questa crisi – ancora non finita – nasce il Giappone di oggi.
La famiglia giapponese affronta i tempi duri e moderni del dopoguerra e cambia inesorabilmente. Le donne iniziano a uscire da casa per lavorare, gli uomini devono adattarsi alla nuova società e chi non ci riesce si rifugia nei ricordi o nel sake. Il poeta malinconico del cambiamento della famiglia giapponese è il regista Ozu Yasujirō (小津安二郎, 1903 - 1963) che – a differenza di Kurosawa Akira (黒澤明 o 黒沢明, 1910 - 1998) conosciuto e acclamato in tutto il mondo – produce i suoi capolavori rivolgendosi esclusivamente al pubblico giapponese e girando shomingeki (庶民劇, “teatro popolare”), film le cui storie riguardano la vita quotidiana delle persone comuni. Nelle sue pellicole come Banshun (晩春, “Tarda primavera”, 1949), Tōkyō monogatari (東京物語, “La storia di Tōkyō”, 1953) o nell’ultimo Sanma no aji (秋刀魚の味, “Il gusto del pesce Sanma”, 1962) l’amore dei figli per i genitori - della figlia per il padre in particolare - è destinato inesorabilmente a cedere di fronte ai valori della nuova società giapponese nella quale la tradizione ha sempre meno posto.
Nel dopoguerra hanno grande successo i kaijū eiga (怪獣映画, “film di bestie strane”) prodotti dalla Tōhō (東宝株式会社), film di mostri il cui capolavoro e capostipite è Gojira (ゴジラ, 1954) di Honda Ishirō (本多猪四郎, 1911 - 1993). Il mostro dell’isola di Odo nato dalle radiazioni atomiche è la personificazione della “paura nucleare” molto sentita in Giappone, dove il ricordo delle bombe di Hiroshima e Nagasaki è ancora vivo e dolente. Gli effetti speciali di Tsuburaya Eiji (円谷英二, 1901 - 1970) papà di Gojira, terrorizzarono migliaia di spettatori. Negli anni ’60 e ‘70 la paura della bomba pian piano svanisce e il pubblico giapponese ha nuove esigenze di svago: nascono i pinku eiga (ピンク映画) successivamente chiamati roman porno, pellicole romantiche e sottilmente erotiche che hanno nella Nikkatsu (日活株式会社) la casa di produzione principale, in Tanaka Noboru (田中登, 1937 - 2006) il regista più importante e in Miyashita Junko (宮下順子) la “regina” delle attrici, sogno erotico degli anni ’70.
La letteratura giapponese inizia ad essere conosciuta anche all’estero e nel 1968 il Nobel per la letteratura viene assegnato per la prima volta ad uno scrittore giapponese e orientale: Kawabata Yasunari (川端康成, 1899 - 1972) che con i suoi libri imbevuti di modelli classici regala un esempio di vera arte poetica giapponese. Nel 1970 un grande amico di Kawabata, lo scrittore Mishima Yukio (三島由紀夫, 1925 - 1970) che tra tradizione e modernità ha vissuto la sua vita lacerata si uccide davanti ai media con un seppuku tradizionale: «Il popolo giapponese di oggi pensa al denaro, solo al denaro. […] La nazione non ha fondamenta spirituali» le sue ultime parole gridate prima di tagliarsi il ventre. Mishima che pure nelle sue opere dimostra di amare e ispirarsi all’Occidente sente e soffre la crisi di identità del Sol levante. Il modo che sceglie per morire è l’ultimo atto estremo del suo contraddittorio e nostalgico amore per la tradizione.
Gli anni ’70 e ’80 sono quelli dell’industria e della ricchezza. Mono no aware e wabi sabi, concetti che avevano guidato lo sviluppo culturale del Giappone, svaniscono nei centri commerciali e nella ricerca frenetica di una nuova tecnologia che cancelli presto e continuamente la tecnologia precedente. Le case tradizionali lasciano posto ad anonimi palazzi e le città diventano sempre più simili a qualsiasi altra città del mondo industrializzato. Tokyo si riempie di grattacieli e sopraelevate e il ponte Nihonbashi celebre per la vista del Fujiyama è attraversato dal cavalcavia della superstrada costruita in occasione delle Olimpiadi del 1964. L’architettura giapponese di epoca Shōwa ha in Tange Kenzō (丹下健三, 1913 - 2005) l’artefice più originale in grado di coniugare armonicamente tradizione e stile moderno. L’edificio che rappresenta meglio la sua arte è il Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building a Shinjuku (東京都庁舎) iniziato nel 1988 e portato a termine nel 1991.
La cultura del Giappone ha nel cibo tradizionale e nel rito della sua preparazione una delle espressioni più genuine. Come coniugare amore per il cibo e risparmio di tempo e denaro necessario nella nuova società? La risposta l’ha data Andō Momofuku (安藤百福, 1910 - 2007) fondatore della Nissin (日清食品株式会社) di Osaka. Gli instant noodles e i cup noodles - prodotti rispettivamente nel 1958 e 1971 - sono la rivoluzione più visibile nella vita alimentare dei giapponesi e di riflesso degli altri popoli dell’Estremo Oriente. In ufficio, in strada, in macchina, in treno o in aereo in pochi minuti si possono gustare dei noodles come a casa. O quasi.
Mangiare più in fretta possibile: ecco una selva di fast foods invadere ed occupare ogni angolo di Giappone. Insomma il Sol levante inizia a tramontare o semplicemente a trasformarsi. Gli artisti – quelli veri - sono da sempre i testimoni del cambiamento. Negli ukiyo-e di Teraoka Masami prodotti negli anni ’70 vediamo dei soggetti tradizionali come fieri samurai e sensuali geisha “invasi” da inquietanti hamburger e cartacce: è la serie McDonald's Hamburger Invading Japan (1974-5). Alcuni artisti scelgono invece un’altra strada più violenta e di rottura con il passato della tradizione: le opere di Kusama Yayoi (草間彌生 o 草間弥生) – forse l’artista giapponese contemporanea più conosciuta all’estero – parlano del disgregamento della società giapponese attraverso il linguaggio dei suoi pois elemento ricorrente fino all’ossessione nelle sue creazioni.
L’epoca Shōwa ha anche la sua regina: Misora Hibari (美空ひばり, 1937 – 1989), “bellissima allodola” attrice e cantante dalla voce divina, protagonista indiscussa dell’enka. Hibari Misora lega la sua esistenza alla sua carriera: canta fino a quando la malattia di cui soffre la fa cadere durante uno degli ultimi concerti a Fukuoka. Nel gennaio 1989, pochissimi giorni dopo la morte di Hirohito, esce la sua ultima e più famosa canzone quasi come un commiato dalla vita e un addio all’epoca Shōwa: Kawa no nagare no yō ni (川の流れのように, “Come la corrente del fiume”). Misora muore il 24 giugno 1989 e forse proprio questa è la data simbolica della fine dell’epoca “della pace illuminata”, un’epoca di dolori e gioie, di morte e rinascita: “Come la corrente del fiume / l’era passa con indulgenza / come la corrente del fiume / all’infinito il cielo nel tramonto si tinge soltanto”.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

昭和という最長の元号が終わって

戦争と平和の時代、貧困と繁栄の時代
そして、今日の日本が作られた時代であった

昭和時代は日本の天皇制上、天皇在位期間が最長の時代であった。昭和天皇裕仁は1926年12月25日から1989年１月７日まで63年に亘って天皇の位についていた。彼の人生そのものである昭和時代は、日本が極東の大帝国の夢を見た時代であり、戦争と原爆、一時代の終わりと新たな時代の始まり、アメリカによる占領、高度経済成長と消費の発達を経験し、世界第２位の経済大国へと上り詰めた時代でもあった。
この光と闇の時代の主人公でもありシンボルでもあるのは、何と言っても裕仁天皇であろう。時には脇役に徹していたとはいえ、常に時代の舞台の中心にいた。『和を照らす』という意味の昭和の名のとおり、彼の初めての御言葉は世界の平和への期待に満ちたものであった。しかしそれは、戦争によってすぐに裏切られることになる。日本は栄光ある征服の後、絶望的な戦いへとはまりこんでいく。原爆によって破壊された日本の国民にとって、1945年8月15日にラジオから流れた天皇の肉声は、もはや『天の子』のものではなく、完膚なきまでに打ちのめされた国家の元首のものであった。それは日本にとって最後のそして決定的な一撃であった。
時は経ち1975年、残酷な歴史の皮肉とも言おうか、訪米中の裕仁天皇はディズニーランドでミッキーマウスと写真をお撮りになった。日本人が神の末裔である天皇の臣下であることを誇りに思っていた昭和初期から、天皇が地上の神ではなく一人の人間であると自ら認めた昭和中期にかけて、日本は千年にもおよぶ歴史上、最大の精神的危機に立ち向かうことになる。そして未だ続いているこの危機から、今日の日本は生まれた。
日本の家族は戦後、困難な時代に立ち向かうとともに、伝統とかけ離れた現代に相対することで、非情なまでに変わっていった。女性が家から出て働くようになり、男性はその新たな社会に適応せねばならず、適応できなければ、過去の記憶に逃れるか酒に溺れるしかなかった。こうした日本の家族の変化を、哀愁を込めて表現したのが映画監督の小津安二郎だった。世界的に評価されている黒澤明とは異なり、小津はもっぱら一般大衆を取り上げ、普通の日本人の日常を描いたいわゆる『庶民劇』を撮り続けた。彼の代表作『晩春』（1949）や『東京物語』（1953）、遺作となった『秋刀魚の味』（1962）などの作品では、両親の子供たちへの愛、特に父親の娘への愛が、伝統的なものが軽視されていく新しい日本社会の価値観の前に、崩れていく様が描かれている。
一方、戦後に本多猪四郎監督の『ゴジラ』（1954）に代表される怪獣映画が次々と大ヒットを記録した。大戸島で原爆の放射線から生まれた怪獣ゴジラは、広島と長崎に落とされた原爆の悲惨な記憶が生々しく残る当時の日本人が持っていた『原子力への恐怖』を表していた。ゴジラの生みの親とも言われる円谷英二が作り出した特殊効果は、観客を恐怖に陥れた。しかし60年代、70年代になるとこの原爆への恐怖を徐々にフェードアウトしていき、日本人は新しい娯楽を求めるようになる。後にロマンポルノと呼ばれるピンク映画が誕生したのもこの時代であった。監督の田中昇やロマンポルノの女王・宮下順子に代表される日活のスタジオで撮られた、ロマンチックで少し官能的なこれらの映画は、70年代の大衆のエロティックな夢であった。
日本文学も海外で知られるようになり、1968年には日本、そして東洋の作家に初めてノーベル文学賞が授与された。古典的なモデルにどっぷりと浸かった作品を書く川端康成は、日本の詩的芸術の神髄を示しているといえよう。 1970年には、川端康成の親友である三島由紀夫が、伝統と現代の間で苦悩したあげく、マスメディアを前に切腹という伝統的な作法で自殺する。『我々は戦後の日本が経済的繁栄にうつつを抜かし、国の大本を忘れ、国民精神を失った。私と意見が合わないのも当然だ』。腸を引き裂く前に発せられた彼の最後の言葉である。三島は、その作品の中で西洋への愛を表明しインスピレーションを受けていることを認めてはいるものの、日本人としてのアイデンティティの危機を鋭敏に感じ苦悩していた。死を選んだことは、矛盾に満ちてノスタルジックな日本の伝統への愛を極限まで突き詰めた最後の行為であった。
70年代、80年代は産業と富の時代であった。日本文化を発展させてきた『もののあはれ』や『わびさび』などの考え方は、商業センターや、それ以前の技術を否定し続ける、狂気に駆られたような新技術の研究の中に消えていった。伝統的な家屋は名もない建物にとって代わられ、日本の都市は海外の先進国の都市とますます区別がつかなくなっていく。東京は高層ビルや高架で埋めつくされ、美しい富士山が見えることで有名な日本橋は、1964年の東京オリンピックに向けて作られた高速道路の高架で覆われた。そうした昭和時代の建築の中で、丹下健三は伝統と現代のスタイルを上手く調和させることのできる最も独創的な建築家であった。彼の建築芸術を最もよく表しているのは、1988年に着工し3年後の1991年に完成した新宿の東京都庁舎であろう。
また、日本の文化は、伝統的な食べ物とその準備の儀式において最も誠実に表されている。どのように料理への情熱を実現するとともに、新しい社会に不可欠な時間とお金を節約するか？その答えを出したのは、大阪の日清食品株式会社を創設した安藤百福である。それぞれ1958年と1971年に発売が開始されたインスタントラーメンとカップヌードルは、日本人の食生活において最も目につく革命であり、極東の他の国の人々にも影響を与えた。オフィスや街頭、車や電車、飛行機の中で、数分にして家で食べるようなヌードルを作れるようになったのだ。　
『できるだけ早く食べる』。これが大量のファーストフードが日本の津々浦々まで侵入し占領した理由であり、陽の昇る国日本は黄昏を迎え、変わり始める。アーティスト、それも本物の芸術家は、常にこの変化の証言者であった。1970年代に寺岡政美が描いた浮世絵、一連の『マクドナルドのハンバーガー』シリーズ（1974-75）には、誇り高い侍や官能的な芸者が、人々を不安に陥れるハンバーガーや紙くずにどのように『侵略』されているかが描かれている。一方、より暴力的な方法や過去の伝統との乖離を選んだアーティストもいる。現代の日本人アーティストの中でおそらく海外で最も有名な草間彌生の作品では、妄想とも思えるほど執拗に繰り返される水玉模様という言語を通して、日本社会の崩壊が語られている。
昭和時代には美空ひばりがいた。彼女は、"美しいヒバリ"という名の神の声を持つ歌手でもあり女優でもあり、誰も否定できない演歌の女王であった。彼女の人生は歌い手としての経歴そのものであり、病が体を蝕むまで歌い続け、福岡県でのコンサートが彼女の歌い手としての最後の活動となった。1989年1月、昭和天皇崩御から数日後には、美空ひばりの最後の、そして最も有名な曲『川の流れのように』がリリースされた。この曲は彼女の人生への別れ、昭和という時代への別れの歌であった。1989年6月24日に美空ひばりは亡くなる。おそらくこれは『照らされた平和』という昭和時代の終わりを象徴するものでもあった。それは苦悩と喜びの時代であり、終結と再生の時代でもあった。『ああ　川の流れのように／ゆるやかに／いくつも時代は過ぎて／ああ川の流れのように／とめどなく／空が黄昏に染まるだけ』

フロリアーノ・テッラーノ

higashishinbun@aol.com

(Kawa no nagare no yō ni by Misora Hibari www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wmIrAFKLs0)

2009-11-27T15:02:00.002+01:00

The importance of carved gesture

Bangasayusang

the serene smile of Buddha

China has influenced Far East for long and profoundly in language, culture, art. Korean artists get inspired by Chinese examples in sculpture too developing their own simple and elegant style. Korean artistic models reach Japan soon because of geography of Korea which is a peninsula-bridge between China and the Land of Rising Sun. Sculpture begins to develop at the same time of Buddhism diffusion through Far East due to Chinese monks. Buddhism officially gets to Korea in IV century during Three Kingdoms (57 BC – 668 AD ) and it is keenly received by Baekje dynasty in South Western peninsula. In this kingdom the most original Buddhist statuesque art of Korea develops and it profoundly influences contemporary sculpture of Asuka (538 – 710) and Nara (710 – 794) Japan. Baekje carved sacred images are extremely different from Goguryeo and Silla kingdoms ones. Baekje statues show softer and more delicate shapes and their visage has got a kind expression and a gentle sweet smile called “Baekje smile” (백제인의 미소) which is the most peculiar characteristic of this style.
Geumdong Mireuk Bosal Bangasayusang or Bangasayusang (“Gilt-bronze Maitreya Bodhisattva Half-sitting Thinking Statue”, 반가사유상) is the most significant and well-known Baekje statue - National Treasure of Korea No. 83 - currently stored at National Museum of Korea. This work probably dates back to early VII century in late Baekje (18 BC – 660 AD) even if it could perhaps be carved in early Unified Silla (668 – 935) as attested by drapery style and by sharp nose. However serene and graceful smile and harmonious form are typical of Baekje style. The gilt-bronze statue is 93.5 centimetres tall and it represents Maitreya the future Buddha (Mireuk, 미륵) i. e. Buddha before next coming into the world. Maitreya is sitting with right hand resting on cheek in a meditative attitude which gives tranquillity and hope. His right leg is leaning on the left knee and left hand is resting on bent leg ankle. This is the typical position of Maitreya in Korean and – by reflex - Japanese statues. Carved drapery is realistic and the shape is lithe and nimble and it gives vitality and harmony. As all Maitreya statues Bangasayusang is devoid of adornments too and his chest is bare since that emphasizes the simplicity of future Buddha.
The Nihon Shoki (日本書紀) – book of Japanese history completed in 720 – mentions that in 552 king Seong of Baekje sent some Buddhist monks to Nara, Japan. In fact Buddhism reaches Japan from Korea and Japanese artists hark back to Korean Buddhist art especially in sculpture. Chinese and Korean monks bring Buddhist images with themselves during their journey and these representations are the models to be copied by local artists.
In Japan Miroku Bosatsu or Hōkan Miroku (弥勒菩薩半跏像 or 宝冠弥勒) at Kyoto’s Kōryū-ji is a red pine carved statue of Maitreya - National Treasure of Japan No. 1 – 84.2 centimetres tall. It is quite the same of Bangasayusang in proportions and appearance. For years it was regarded as a work by a Japanese artist inspired by a Korean statue but now it is considered as a Korean work itself. Miroku of Kyoto probably dates back to VII century as well. The smile of this statue is slightly more marked than Bangasayusang and Mireuk’s necklace is absent in this sculpture to underline more profoundly - together with the wood as utilised matter - the future Buddha cleanness before his coming down to the world. Kyoto’s Miroku statue conveys a bigger feeling of naturalness of grace and of vivacity compared to Bangasayusang. Korean artist who carved Miroku creates a work in elegant realism style which is typical of Japanese sculpture.
Nihon Shoki also mentions that in 584 Baekje kingdom – called Kudara by the Japanese - sent an image of Maitreya to Japan. The idea that this mentioned statue could be the same carved wooden of Kōryū-ji based on Bangasayusang model is very fascinating. In this period many Miroku statues of several dimensions are brought from China and Korea to Japan. However Japanese artists are influenced mainly by Korean models and later on they develop their own style.
Maitreya thinking statue probably develops in Three Kingdoms Korea when continual wars of this period make Korean people hope for a saviour who could bring peace i. e. Maitreya the future Buddha. Mireuksa – one of the most important temples of Baekje Kingdom completed in 602 by king Mu – is in fact devoted to Maitreya.
Geumdong Mireuk Bosal Bangasang (금동 미륵보살 반가상) – National Treasure of Korea No. 78 – distinguishes itself among Maitreya statues of Korea and it represents Maitreya the future Buddha half-sitting and meditating like Bangasayusang. The gilt-bronze statue is 83.2 centimeters tall and it could date back to middle or end of VI century. Its origin is uncertain. The mannered style and the stylized drapery are typical of Silla kingdom art. Nevertheless the serene smile on the statue’s face is characteristic of Baekje.
Often in China Maitreya statues have got an inscription which indicates them as representations of the future Buddha. Korean and Japanese Maitreya statues haven’t got any inscription since Maitreya statue model is formalized and peculiar and consequently recognizable to everybody.
Maitreya statue shows not only the half-sitting pose with the bent leg and the hand resting on cheek but it shows also the smile, that serene and mysterious smile which speaks and teaches even if in silence giving an unknown tranquillity to observer.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

2009-09-27T23:16:00.000+02:00

The way of perfume

Incense in Far East

from religion to everyday life

A scented smoke wraps around Far Eastern temples, the aroma of incense. Smoke has been always the link between human beings and divinity, the way from life on earth to heavenly life. Way of perfume kōdō (香道) is the name of the art of incense knowledge in Japan and incense culture is deep-rooted in Korea and China as well. Incense Route was the road of incense trade from China and South East Asia to Middle East and Europe during and after Roman Empire. It was contemporary to Silk Road. Jinkō (沈香) “incense that sinks in water” was and is also nowadays the most appreciated of precious aromatic resins from which incenses derivate. Jinkō is the resin of agarwood three native to South East Asia and Vietnam above all. Kyara (伽羅) is another type of agarwood resin even more rare and precious. When agarwood is attacked by mould it produces perfumed resin as a defence. Scent is plant’s threat against illness and pain and incense was always coupled with purification and recovery and sometimes it was used for therapeutic purposes.
Incense is very important for Buddhism and the faithful link prayers at temple and incenses lighting together. Words of prayers are taken to divinity by smoke of incense. Sticks are the most common incenses’ shape together with coils which can burn more time as in famous Man Mo Temple in Hong Kong in which the ceiling is completely covered in incense coils. An incense burner of various dimensions and shapes is generally placed in front of the temple entrance.
Incense culture has developed in different typologies in the several Far East countries. In Korea incense permitted the creation of lots of incense burners which are authentic carved masterpieces made of bronze or of aqua green porcelain cheongja (청자). One of the well-known symbols of Korean art is the Gilt-bronze Incense Burner of Baekje which dates back to the sixth century during Baekjie Kingdom (18 BC – 660 AD) and which is now housed at the Buyeo National Museum as 287th National Treasure of Korea. Incense burner is not blossoming yet lotus flower-shaped and its very rich ornamentation ends with the phoenix on the top. Incense burner’s symbolism joins together Buddhist and Taoist elements. Korean artists mould porcelain incense burners which take the various shapes of nature and lots of glazed ceramics of this kind made during Goryeo period (918 - 1392) are held at National Museum of Korea. The most famous of which are a lion-shaped incense burner from the mouth of which incense smoke exits and a flower-shaped another one on which an incense containing open-work sphere made using tugak technique (투각) is based which is the 95th National Treasure of Korea.
Incense culture spreads through Far East till Japan during sixth century together with Buddhism diffusion. Legend before history: in 3rd year of Empress Suiko (595) sea brought to Awaji-shima island beach in Central Japan a drift piece of wood which if put near fire filled air in divine fragrance. History after legend: in Shōsōin treasure house of Tōdai-ji at Nara ranjatai is held. Ranjatai is a very precious piece of jinkō which Empress Komyo wife of Emperor Shomu gave as gift to Tōdai-ji in 756 when her husband died. Ranjatai was probably brought to Japan from China by Emperor Shomu and its origin is maybe from Vietnam or Laos. Only three well-known historical figures were allowed to get tiny fragments of the very precious jinkō of Tōdai-ji i.e. shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa and Tokugawa Ieyasu and daimyō Oda Nobunaga.
Incense culture in Japan during Heian period (794 - 1185) refines itself and becomes an independent art taught by masters. Two incense games kumikō and genjikō spread through upper class: they consist in guessing and linking the right perfume to right incense name. Genjikō is named after chapters of Genji Monogatari by Murasaki Shikibu.
In Muromachi period (1336 - 1573) incense gets completely from religious to personal field and it becomes a symbol of authority and opulence. Price of some kinds of jinkō incense could even exceed that of gold and for this reason incense was itself a symbol of power. One more legend: once upon a time there was a daimyō such influential and rich that he could burn more than half a kilo of very pure jinkō incense at once to make people smell his power’s scent through all the country. From legend to reality: samurai used to perfume profoundly their helmets with incense before the battle to assign more prestige to themselves. In case of being beaten by adversary a fine fragrance would come from their cut head.
Incense is also nowadays a very important element of Far East culture not only in temples but in houses as well, non only in religion but in every day life. Mainichi Kō (毎日香) “Every day incense” is in fact the name of the best-seller incense in Japan and in the world produced by Japanese company Nippon Kodo established in 1965 (www.nipponkodo.com). Nippon Kodo produces incenses for temples too and scents are very various. Incense manufacturing is inspired by Momoyama period (1568 – 1603) classical workmanship and links together modernity and tradition. Since 2005 the most important incense manufacturing company in Korea called Manbokhyang Dang is part of the Nippon Kodo group (www.mbhd.co.kr): its mission is to allow Korean people to rediscover aesthetic and religious importance of incense in nowadays Korea which very often - like the other Far Eastern countries – faces West forgetting the perfume of its own culture.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

(Images courtesy of Nippon Kodo

www.nipponkodo.com)

2009-09-27T22:57:00.010+02:00

Koto e shakuhachi

l’arte segreta

della musica giapponese

Intervista ai maestri

Yonezawa Hiroshi e Kumazawa Eriko

Yonezawa Hiroshi e Kumazawa Eriko sono due tra i più importanti maestri della musica tradizionale giapponese. Yonezawa suona lo shakuhachi, Kumazawa il koto. Organizzano spesso spettacoli all’estero e nel febbraio 2009 sono venuti in Italia invitati dalla Japan Foundation e l’Istituto di Cultura Giapponese di Roma e hanno suonato a Modena il 28 febbraio in occasione della mostra Asian Dub Photography.
In questa occasione abbiamo rivolto ai due maestri delle domande sulla loro attività artistica, sulla musica giapponese e sul suo valore e significato nel Giappone contemporaneo.
Le domande in blu sono rivolte al maestro Yonezawa, le domande in rosso alla meastra Kumazawa.

1) Come è iniziato il Suo “viaggio” nel mondo della musica tradizionale giapponese?
«Da bambino. Durante la scuola media suonavo la tromba. In seguito, mentre frequentavo il corso di tromba all’Università Musicale, mi sono iscritto al gruppo universitario di hogaku e ho cominciato a suonare lo shakuhachi. A questo punto ho avuto il dubbio se continuare a suonare la tromba oppure dedicarmi completamente allo shakuhachi. Poi ho incontrato il mio maestro Miyata Kohachiro che mi ha insegnato non la tecnica ma la bellezza del suono dello shakuhachi. Al secondo anno di università ho iniziato a fare lezioni private con il maestro e ho capito veramente cosa sia la musica. Secondo me la cosa più importante per i musicisti è mostrare le sensazioni di piacere e il fascino che si provano suonando e sentendo la musica».

2) Come è iniziato il Suo “viaggio” nel mondo della musica tradizionale giapponese?
«Ho cominciato perché mia mamma suonava il koto poi ho frequentato le lezioni da quando avevo 12 anni».

3) Perché tra gli strumenti ha scelto lo shakuhachi?
«Ho scelto lo strumento “opposto” alla tromba cioè lo shakuhachi. Quando ero molto piccolo, mia mamma suonava il koto ma non me ne ricordavo più. Quando lei me l’ha raccontato me ne sono ricordato e forse ho scelto lo shakuhachi perché mi richiamava alla memoria come strumento tradizionale il koto suonato dalle mani di mia madre che avevo sentito da bambino».

4) Perché tra gli strumenti ha scelto il koto?
«Perché il koto mi è stato sempre vicino. Quando da bambina lo studiavo, non sentivo la fatica di studiare, anzi ero felice di sentire che piano piano diventavo più brava. Ho avuto una maestra bravissima, come un regalo di Dio. Anche grazie a lei, ho sentito tanta possibilità di esprimermi con il koto».

5) Tradizionalmente il koto è più legato alla donna e lo shakuhachi più all’uomo?
«E’ vero. Normalmente lo shakuhachi è suonato più dagli uomini e il koto più dalle donne. Però durante l’epoca musicale classica i compositori e i musicisti di koto erano tutti uomini. Le donne forse sono diventate più interessate al koto grazie alle musiche del famoso compositore Miyagi Michio (宮城道雄, 1894 – 1956). La sua melodia e la sua musica sono belle ed eleganti e il koto è diventato uno strumento più affascinante e più vicino alla sensibilità femminile».
Poi Yonezawa aggiunge: «Probabilmente anche molto tempo fa le donne suonavano il koto. Ricordo un antico emakimono, rotolo orizzontale dipinto, sul quale è ritratta una donna nobile mentre suona il koto. In effetti nella tradizione giapponese il koto è lo strumento suonato solo dai medici e dai samurai, che secondo una leggenda lo usavano per calmarsi. Il fatto che il koto fosse all’inizio lo strumento di medici e samurai forse deriva da come è arrivata la musica sokyoku dalla Cina al Giappone. Sokyoku o sankyoku (三曲) “tre strumenti”, cioè koto, shamisen e kokyu. La musica sokyoku è stata portata probabilmente in Giappone insieme al biwa da musicisti ciechi che sviluppavano notevoli qualità musicali proprio perché privi della vista. Questi formavano un gruppo chiamato todoza i cui membri rivestivano i diversi gradi gerarchici chiamati zato, koto, betto, kengyo, il grado più importante. Durante l’epoca Meiji (1868 – 1912) anche la musica cambiò, per esempio il koto poteva essere suonato e ascoltato anche dalle persone comuni, lo shakuhachi è uscito dall’uso della sfera religiosa buddhista. Dopo l’epoca Meiji lo shakuhachi entra del tutto nel mondo della musica giapponese ed è spesso associato al koto tanto che ora la musica sankyoku è costitutita da koto, shamisen e shakuhachi che ha preso il posto del kokyu. “Koto” è una parola risalente all’epoca Yamato (250 – 710) e significa “strumento a corde”; originariamente si scriveva in caratteri diversi da quelli con i quali si scrive oggi che sono di più facile comprensione».

6) Il koto e lo shakuhachi sono strumenti di derivazione cinese, rispettivamente dal guzheng (古箏) e dallo xiao (簫). In Giappone però hanno assunto suono e significato diversi. In cosa consiste la peculiarità degli strumenti giapponesi?
«Il suono dello shakuhachi è puro ma c’è anche una tecnica chiamata muraiki che riproduce il suono del fiato. Anche nel koto c’è una tecnica simile che si chiama keshizume che produce un suono ronzante chiamato sawari. Il keshizume fu iniziato dallo shamisen. Gli strumenti della tradizione giapponese quindi non solo producono una melodia pura ma usano anche il rumore e questa caratteristica è comune a tutte le culture dell’Estremo Oriente. Ad esempio in Cina c’è il flauto minteki (明笛) e in Corea il daegeum (대금) che sono strumenti costruiti in modo tale da produrre anche effetti disarmonici. Gli strumenti della tradizione estremo-orientale sono entrati in Giappone e in seguito sono diventati propriamente “giapponesi”, variando con il passare degli anni e assumendo caratteristiche differenti da quelle degli strumenti orientali da quali derivano. Gli strumenti di Cina, Corea e Giappone hanno peculiarità diverse ma comunque derivano dalla variazione delle stesse caratteristiche. Dal momento che il Giappone è un’isola, per i giapponesi è stato più facile distinguersi ed essere originali rispetto agli altri popoli dell’Estremo Oriente».

7) La musica orientale, come quella della Cina, del Giappone e della Corea, si basa sulla scala pentafonica. Cinque tonalità che permettono una grande varietà di combinazioni melodiche. Al di là dell’aspetto puramente formale, quale è il significato e il messaggio artistico della musica pentafonica?
«Forse i giapponesi hanno sentito la musica pentafonica più vicina alla propria sensibilità. Lo shakuhachi che usiamo noi adesso è a cinque buchi ed è entrato dalla Cina in epoca Kamakura (1185 - 1333); probabilmente però lo shakuhachi era già entrato in Giappone nella versione a sei buchi in epoca Nara (710 - 794) ed era adoperato per il gagaku rimanendo in uso per poco tempo. La musica popolare giapponese tsuibunsetsu o oibunsetsu è pentafonica ed è venuta dalla Mongolia entrando in Giappone con il commercio dei cavalli mongoli. I giapponesi infatti non usavano i cavalli che furono introdotti dalla Cina nel periodo dal IV al VI secolo e nell’ VIII secolo li iniziarono ad utilizzare per arare. In questa epoca i mongoli hanno portato la base dell’oibunsetsu e questa musica è piaciuta ai giapponesi e si è diffusa in tutto il Giappone. In Giappone, dove finiva la Via della seta, i giapponesi hanno riadattato alla loro sensibilità la cultura che veniva dalla Cina e dalla Corea. Anche la musica popolare coreana è formata da cinque note quindi la musica giapponese e quella coreana sono simili nelle melodie. Ecco perché i cantanti coreani che interpretano l’enka sono bravissimi e l’enka è apprezzata da molte persone in Corea. Credo che gli uomini scelgano i gusti non con la testa ma con il cuore e anche i giapponesi hanno scelto così la musica pentafonica».

8) Dei pezzi classici giapponesi colpisce il costante richiamo agli elementi naturali come paesaggio, animali, piante. In particolare nel famoso brano anonimo composto nel XIII secolo durante l’epoca Kamakura (1185 - 1333 ) Shika no Tōne (鹿の遠音) “Il lamento distante dei cervi” il suono dello shakuhachi imita e diventa il lamento del cervo maschio che richiama, in pieno autunno, la sua compagna. Quale è il rapporto tra musica e natura?
«Ho sentito dire che i giapponesi e gli europei provano sentimenti diversi quando ascoltano la musica o i suoni della natura ma non so se questo sia vero oppure no. Durante questa tournée europea ho capito che nella lingua giapponese ci sono tante onomatopee. Per i giapponesi è naturale indicare con la lingua i suoni che li circondano. Cioè quando sentono la voce degli uccelli o i fruscii degli insetti li imitano subito con la lingua. La nostra lingua è quindi uguale ai suoni della natura anche se i giapponesi imitano anche suoni che non appartengono alla sfera naturale. Per esempio quando usiamo il forno a microonde per riscaldare il cibo freddo in Giappone diciamo “fare cin”. Questo “cin” è l’onomatopea che riproduce il campanello del microonde. Si dice che suonare gli strumenti è come cantare ma nella lingua giapponese c’è un problema di pronuncia e articolazione dei suoni. Per esempio negli strumenti a fiato degli europei c’è una tecnica nella quale si impiega la lingua usando la erre ma nella lingua giapponese non esiste la pronuncia erre, allora questa tecnica particolare non può nascere negli strumenti tradizionali. Nello shakuhachi c’è una tecnica chiamata tamane che si ottiene usando l’ugola. Senza la parola non si potrebbero mostrare tutte le cose, per questo forse è meglio pensare all’unione di musica e parola o di parola e natura anziché a quello di musica e natura».

9) Nella poesia giapponese classica, genere molto legato alla musica gagaku, due degli elementi più importanti sono lo yūgen (幽玄) “senso profondo, misterioso” e il kigo (季語) “parola associata ad un elemento della stagione”. Gli stessi elementi sono presenti anche nella musica giapponese? Proprio l’elemento di mistero yūgen mi sembra sia ancora presente anche nelle composizioni più recenti della musica giapponese tradizionale. Cosa ne pensa?
«Il cambiamento delle quattro stagioni ha lasciato un segno profondo nella cultura del Giappone e ha influenzato il nostro modo di sentire. Ecco perché anche nella musica si “ascolta” questo sentimento del cambio della stagione».

10) La musica giapponese moderna, di stile orchestrale come quella di Takemitsu Tōru ( 武満徹, 1930-1996) anche se usa strumenti propri della tradizione occidentale, talvolta unendoli a quelli giapponesi, prende ispirazione e titoli da elementi naturali come le stagioni. Quanto c’è di tradizionale nella musica “classica” giapponese di stile occidentale?
«Non saprei dare una risposta con esattezza a questa domanda. Ho sentito che in “November Steps” (ノヴェンバー・ステップス, Novenbā Suteppusu), uno dei suoi pezzi più famosi composto nel 1967, Takemitsu Tōru ha usato il biwa e lo shakuhachi insieme all’orchestra occidentale. I pezzi dedicati agli strumenti orientali sono lasciati maggiormente all’improvvisazione, questo perché i musicisti di shakuhachi Yokohama Katsuya (1934) e di biwa Tsuruta Kinshi (1911 – 1995) erano molto virtuosi e quando Takemitsu li ha sentiti ha voluto scrivere questa musica proprio per loro due. Takemitsu voleva stimolare le sensazioni degli ascoltatori e allargare i confini di questi due strumenti che erano normalmente legati solo alla tradizione musicale giapponese».

11) Nel suo repertorio concertistico non c’è solo la musica antica ma anche pezzi moderni scritti da musicisti giapponesi contemporanei come Miyagi Michio, Nagasawa Katsutoshi (長沢勝俊, 1923-2008) e Sato Toshinao (1936-2002). In effetti la musica dello shakuhachi e del koto colpisce per la loro attualità. Cosa ne pensa?
«La musica classica cambia a seconda del musicista che la interpreta. Nel momento in cui la interpretano dei musicisti moderni come noi allora diventa “moderna” perché noi viviamo in questi anni e di conseguenza interpretiamo la musica in maniera più attuale».

12) Si parla spesso di come l’arte giapponese abbia influenzato ed ispirato nella seconda metà del 1800 gli artisti dell’impressionismo. Tuttavia, sentendo la musica dello shakuhachi soprattutto, sembra di ascoltare delle assonanze di stile con i musicisti dell’impressionismo musicale, soprattutto con i pezzi di Claude Debussy (1862-1918) che usò talvolta la scala pentafonica. Debussy conosceva sicuramente l'arte giapponese poichè la copertina della prima edizione de La Mer del 1905 aveva come immagine la Grande Onda (神奈川沖浪) di Hokusai. Debussy e gli altri musicisti dell’epoca conoscevano la musica giapponese?
«Questa domanda è molto interessante. Non saprei…la conoscevano? Ravel, Debussy e Satie sono vissuti negli stessi anni del Giappone Meiji quando il Sol Levante era già aperto all’occidente quindi non possiamo dire per certo che non conoscessero la musica giapponese. Sappiamo che circa cinquant’anni prima della fine nel 1868 del sakoku, l’isolamento del Giappone, alcuni musicisti giapponesi vennero inviati dal governo dei Tokugawa in Italia. Ritornati in Giappone, questi musicisti giapponesi suonarono musica di stile occidentale alla presenza delle più alte cariche giapponesi. Non sappiamo però se durante la loro permanenza in Italia ed Europa abbiano suonato la musica tradizionale giapponese. Potrebbe essere una ipotesi probabile e credibile. Ad ogni modo, non posso rispondere a questa domanda anche se mi viene voglia di incuriosirmi di più a questo argomento».

13) Lei e la Maestra Kumazawa fate parte dai primi anni ’90 dell’ensemble Pentasia che riunisce musicisti oltre che giapponesi anche cinesi e coreani. Quali similitudini e quali differenze ci sono tra la musica giapponese e quella cinese e coreana?
«Innanzitutto sia il koto che lo shakuhachi esistono sia in Cina che in Corea oltre che in Giappone. Il materiale di costruzione è lo stesso cioè il legno di paulonia per il koto e il bambù per lo shakuhachi. Inoltre sia la musica coreana che la musica giapponese sono pentafoniche ma la grande differenza è nel ritmo. Nella musica coreana il ritmo è chiamato chandan “lungo e corto”, vale a dire tempo e ritmo sono uniti e il metro irrazionale è molto usato. Anche la musica classica giapponese usa il metro irrazionale ma non è unito con il tempo, la caratteristica distintiva della musica coreana è funzionare con il tempo. Non posso parlare della musica cinese in generale perché in Cina ci sono troppi popoli diversi quindi anche culture e musiche diverse. In Cina c’è la scala pentafonica ma esiste anche quella a sette note. Pure in Giappone e in Corea ci sono delle diversità ma si sente comunque una maggiore unità culturale. In Corea ad esempio c’è la musica popolare arirang che varia sia per la melodia che per le parole eppure è cantata e conosciuta da tutti i coreani anche di diverse regioni e dialetti».

14) Oggigiorno la musica giapponese è estremamente influenzata quasi “condizionata” dalla musica occidentale; esiste ancora in Giappone, soprattutto tra i giovani, un interesse per la musica degli strumenti tradizionali? Esistono scuole aperte ai giovani che vogliono studiare la musica tradizionale giapponese?
«Dalla fine della Seconda Guerra Mondiale nelle scuole ed università del Giappone si è insegnata solo la musica occidentale. Da un po’ di tempo a questa parte però si sta rivalutando la musica orientale e noi suoniamo anche nelle scuole elementari con la speranza che i bambini, crescendo, avranno curiosità di conoscere e avvicinarsi allo studio degli strumenti tradizionali giapponesi. In alcune università di musica ci sono dei gruppi di hogaku ma purtroppo sono ancora troppo esigui e costituiti da poche persone».

15) Quale sviluppo Lei vede nella musica tradizionale giapponese, si evolverà oppure sarà destinata, come purtroppo gran parte del patrimonio culturale giapponese, pian piano alla perdita di memoria o alla sopravvivenza come puro ricordo di una forma culturale estinta?
«La musica tradizionale e soprattutto la musica classica hanno subito un processo per il quale qualcosa è già scomparso ma le caratteristiche più importanti sono ancora rimaste. In futuro gli ascoltatori e i musicisti della musica tradizionale diminuiranno, ma non credo che pezzi come “Rokudan no shirabe” (六段の調, “Musica dei sei gradini”) di Yatsuhashi Kengyo (八橋検校, 1614 - 1685) o “Shika no tōne” spariranno. La musica che ha un valore più universale rimarrà proprio perché c’è un grande sentimento in quella musica che le permetterà di sopravvivere. Perciò non è importante l’epoca di composizione anche se non posso dire che la musica che ora suono rimarrà per sempre, questo proprio non posso dirlo. Quando visitiamo le classi della scuola elementare raccontiamo ai bambini che gli strumenti vivono solo quando suonano non quando li vediamo soltanto, per esempio come succede per gli strumenti antichi che osserviamo nei musei e che ora non si usano più. Se gli strumenti vivono solo esposti in vetrina allora non c’è più nessun significato di esistenza della musica. Per far sì che la musica rimanga posso sforzarmi di continuare questa tradizione e più in futuro di affidarla ai giovani; la musica tradizionale probabilmente rimarrà ma dipenderà dal gusto delle epoche future. La musica forse non è una cosa fondamentale nella vita di tutti i giorni ma comunque vorrei che la musica rimanga per aiutare a vivere bene. Quindi è impossibile che la musica sparisca».

Per il profilo di Yonezawa Hiroshi e Kumazawa Eriko: http://homepage1.nifty.com/yonesan/ e http://zipangu.com/kumazawa/.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

Si ringrazia per la consulenza musicale il soprano Tomomi Ezoe
Grazie per la collaborazione alla Sig.ra Okai Yoriko

日本伝統音楽の箏と尺八

に秘められた芸術

米澤浩氏と熊沢栄利子氏に

行ったインタビューより

米澤浩氏（尺八奏者）、熊沢栄利子氏（箏奏者）は日本の伝統音楽を奏でる有名な演奏家です。彼らは日本の伝統音楽を広めるため世界中で演奏活動されています。イタリアにも２００９年２月に来られ素晴らしい演奏をされて聴衆から拍手喝采でした。この企画をされたのは日本交流基金、ローマ日本文化会館の皆様です。２００９年２月２８日にモデナで行われた演奏会で演奏を聴くことができインタビューすることができました。この演奏会はモデナで同時期に行われていた展示会“ASIAN DUB PHOTOGRAPHY”にちなんで行われました。
青で書いた質問は米澤様へ、赤で書いた質問は熊沢様への質問です。

１）日本の伝統音楽を学ばれるようになったきっかけは何でしょうか？
きっかけは、大学に入った時に「邦楽」のクラブに入り、尺八を吹き始めたことです。
私は、中学・高校時代にトランペットを吹いていました。大学に進学した私は、このままトランペットを続けることに疑問を持ち、どうせなら全く方向の違う楽器にチャレンジしようと「邦楽」のクラブに入り、尺八にチャレンジしてみることにしたのです。そこで出会ったのが、現在の私の師匠「宮田耕八朗」です。師匠は、あれやこれやと細々「教える・指導する」姿勢ではなく、尺八がいかに良い音がする楽器か、いかに吹いていて気持ちよい楽器かを、目の前で吹いて示して下さいました。（本当に良い音で、気持ち良さそうに吹かれます。）大学の２年生になった時に、個人的に師匠の門を叩き、入門して弟子となりました。師匠のレッスンは、尺八の奏法に留まらず、「音楽」と言うものが自分にとって何なのか？音楽をするにあたり「尺八」を選んだと言う事はどういうことなのか？等々を、演奏する人間として考えさせる姿勢でした。
演奏家は、その楽器の魅力や、演奏していていかに気持ちが良いかを、先ず目の前で見せる事が後進指導のスタートだと考えています。しかし私の師匠は、「私の真似をしても意味がない。」とも言ったり、師匠にちなむ芸談は尽きません。

２）日本の伝統音楽を学ばれるようになったきっかけは何でしょうか？
母が箏を習っていたので、私も見よう見まねで弾いていました。１２歳の時にレッスンに通うようになりました。

３）楽器の中でもなぜ尺八を選ばれたのですか？
（１）の回答にも答えが入っていますが、尺八を選ぶに当たっては全く抵抗がありませんでした。トランペットの「正反対」に位置する楽器として自然に尺八を選択しました。
これには、私が幼少の頃、母が箏（こと）を弾いていたことが影響しているのかも知れません。しかし、幼少の頃に母が箏を弾いていたと言う記憶は、私が尺八を始めた時には全く憶えていませんでした。
しばらくたってから母からその当時の話を聞き、思い出した位ですので、無意識な記憶として残っていた日本の楽器の音が、私に尺八を選ばせたのかも知れません。

４）楽器の中でもなぜ琴を選ばれたのですか？
２の回答と重なりますが、身近にあったからです。練習が苦にならず上達することが喜びでした。先生（砂崎知子）にも恵まれたので、箏の色々な可能性を身近に感じることが出来ました。

５）日本の伝統として琴は女性が演奏し、尺八は男性が演奏することが多いと思いますが、それはなぜですか？
確かに箏は女性が多く、尺八は男性が多いです。しかし箏の古典曲の作曲家＝演奏家は全て男性でした。宮城道雄が多くの曲を作曲し、それを広めて行く過程で、音色や曲の美しさ・雅なイメージに女性が惹かれていったのではないでしょうか。

【米澤補筆】
絵巻物等には、高貴なお姫様が箏を弾いている絵などが残っていますが、お箏は近代に至るまで町民が演奏する楽器ではなく、医者や武家などの知識階層が「精神修養」の一つとしてたしなんだと言われています。
これは筝曲が伝承されてきた経緯に大きく影響を受けているのでしょう。筝曲（三曲：箏・三味線・胡弓／尺八は入りません）は、琵琶楽と共に盲人によって伝承されて来ましたが、その盲人たちは「当道座」（とうどうざ）と呼ばれる独自の組織体形を持ち、その位も「座頭（ざとう）・勾当（こうとう）・別当（べっとう）・検校（けんぎょう）」と細分化され、最高位である検校は相当な力を持っていたとも聞きます。盲目と言うハンディキャップを負いながらも「検校」の位に就く人間は、色々な面でそれぞれ相当な才能があったはずです。
「明治維新」と言う日本の大革命は、音楽の世界にも多大な影響を与え、筝曲の民間への普及や尺八を宗教から開放しました。明治以降、尺八が音楽界で活路を求めて箏と合奏するようになり、現在の三曲形態（箏・三味線・尺八）が定着するのです。
余談の中の余談ですが、、、、、、、、「箏」と「琴」の二つの漢字に付いて書いておきましょう。
日本の漢字は、１９４６年（昭和２１年）に時の政府が「当用漢字」として約１８００字の漢字を示し、これを使うようにメディア等に働き掛けたそうですが、これを決める時に「楽器の専門家」の助言を受けなかったとしか思えません。
それどころか、戦後の連合国軍最高司令官総司令部の「占領政策の国語国字改革」のもと、簡素化と平明さを目指して「当用漢字」が策定されたそうです。
この当用漢字に残った字が「琴（音読み：きん）」で、残らなかった字が「箏（音読み：そう）」です。この二つの漢字、両方とも「訓読み」は「こと」ですが、楽器としては全く異なる絃楽器です。当用漢字に「箏（音読み：そう）」の字が残らなかったがゆえに、現在では「琴」の字を使ってしまいますが、これは間違っています。ちなみに「こと」と言う言葉は「やまと言葉」で絃楽器の総称を意味し、平安時代には「琵琶」と言う楽器も「びわのこと」と呼んでいました。ですので、「琴」は「きんのこと」、「箏」は「そうのこと」と呼ばれ、現在熊沢が演奏している楽器は「箏（こと）」です。これも余談ですが、「絃楽器」と言う場合、弓偏の「弦」の字も使いません。「ふえ」と言う言葉は、管楽器の総称の「やまと言葉」です。

６）箏と尺八は元は中国の楽器で箏は古箏から由来し、尺八は簫から由来しているそうですね、しかし日本の箏と尺八は中国の楽器とは多少音色が変わります、そこで日本の音色の特徴をお聞かせください。
尺八には、なるべく澄んだ音色を求める一方、「ムライキ」と呼ばれる「息音の雑音」を混ぜた特殊奏法があります。箏にも同様に「ケシ爪（けしづめ）」と呼ばれる奏法があり、本来お箏には無い「サワリ」と呼ばれる雑音を、あえて音色として施す奏法があります。
この「ケシ爪（けしづめ）」奏法は、三味線音楽をお箏に導入した時から始まったと思われますが（私の個人的な考えです）、そもそも三味線に「サワリ」が付いたのは、永禄年間に日本に入って来た三味線の原型となる楽器を、琵琶法師が改良して現在の形になったためと言われています。（中国の琵琶には「サワリ」が付いていませんが、日本の琵琶には「サワリ」が付いています。）
澄んだ音色（純音）だけで無く、「雑音も混ぜて一つの音色とする感覚」は、日本独自の感覚・日本の音色の特徴と言うよりも東アジアの感覚・特色だと思われます。
それは、中国の「明笛（みんてき）」と言う笛や、韓国の「テグム」と言う笛は、吹き口と指孔の間に孔を開け、そこに竹の内側にある「薄い皮」を貼って演奏します。そうすると、特定の音の時だけその皮が共鳴しヴィーと言う雑音の混ざった音が出ますが、この加工は特定の音を意識した相当複雑な加工で、その音が絶対に「なくてはならない」からこそ施す加工です。
日本の楽器（雅楽の楽器は除く）は、日本人の感性で育てられ発展してきましたし、頑なに変えないところもあります。それを決定付けて来たのは、東アジアの民族が持つ共通した感覚と、日本人が持つ独自の感覚の両方から特化して来たのでしょう。
中国・韓国・日本の楽器が持つそれぞれの特徴は、一つのカテゴリーの中のバリエーションとも考えられますが、日本は島国と言う条件があったため、それが「特化しやすかった」と言えるかも知れません。

７）中国、日本、韓国の東洋音楽は５音階を基本に作曲されています。５つの音からはさまざまな違ったメロディーを生み出すことができる。そこで５音階に込められた意味とメッセージは何なのでしょうか？
５音階に込められたメッセージは判りません。
ただ、５音階が日本人の感性に合っていたために、その音楽や楽器が残ったのでしょう。現在の尺八は、鎌倉期に中国から入って来た物が現在に至っていますが、奈良時代（７世紀）にも尺八とされる（同様の構造を持つ）楽器が日本に入ってきました。この楽器は、６つの孔を持っている笛で（例えば、ファから始まる７音階）、元々は雅楽尺八として入ってきましたが、全く定着しませんでした。（雅楽でも使われなかったのです。）その後鎌倉期に入って来た尺八は５つ孔の５音階の楽器でこれが現在に至っています。（つまり、淘汰されずに残りました。）
　余談ですが、日本民謡の代表の一つと言われる「追分節」（５音階）は、起源がモンゴルと言われています。これは、馬と共に日本に渡来したのでしょう。
　古来日本には馬を使う文化（軍事も含め）は無かったそうで、４世紀～６世紀に掛けて中国から少しずつ馬を使う文化が入り始め、８世紀には官営の牧場が作られるにまでなりました。
　この時、馬と共に渡来したモンゴルの民が「追分節」の原型となる「馬追の歌」も持って来たのが日本人の感性に合い、北前船と共に広がって行ったと言う説が有力です。前述のように、日本はシルクロードの東の端に「島国」として位置しており、中国や韓国から文物の導入に力を注いで来ましたが、自分たちの感性によって取捨選択することもしていたようです。
　なぜ７音階が残らずに５音階が歓迎されたのか？その理由は定かではありませんが、多分その当時の日本人は７音階は嫌いで５音階が好きだったからでしょう。ちなみに、韓国の民俗音楽も５音階で、日本人の耳には非常に心地良く響きますし、日本の「演歌」を歌うと韓国の方達は本当に上手です。（韓国の方達も「演歌」が好きなようです。）
　人間は、論理的に取捨選択するよりも、感性で選んでいることも多いように思いますが、これは今も昔もそんなに変わらないかも知れません。

８）日本の古典音楽の中には風景、動物、植物といったように自然の要素が取り入れられています。特に鎌倉時代に作曲された鹿の遠音では尺八が鹿の鳴き声を真似しあたかも鹿が本当に鳴いているように尺八が鹿の哀歌を奏でる。日本では音楽と自然、どのような関係があるのでしょうか？
　日本人とヨーロッパ人では、自然界の音や音楽を聴いた時の脳の使い方が違うという説を聞いた事がありますが、この説があっているかどうかは知りません。
今回のヨーロッパ・ツアーで「春の海」のお話をする時に、日本語には擬音語・擬態語（onomatopoeia）が非常に豊かなのだという事を実感しました。日本人は、《「自然界の音」を「言葉」で表現することに違和感を持っていないし、感じもしない。》つまり、《虫や鳥の声を含む「自然界の音」と「言葉」の間にあまり大きな隔たりを感じず、「全く別個のもの」ととらえていない。》ように思えます。
これは自然界の音だけではなく、例えば電子レンジが普及した時、冷めている料理を電子レンジで温め直して食べる事を、電子レンジが加熱し終わった時に機械が出す「チンッ」と言う音を使い、「チンして食べる」と表現し、一般的にも「チンする」と言えば、「電子レンジで加熱する事」をさします。再び横道に逸れますが、全ての楽器は「歌うように演奏する」ことを目指していると思いますが、ここには「言葉の壁」があります。例えば、ヨーロッパの管楽器には「フラッター」と言う舌を使った演奏法がありますが、日本の管楽器にはこの技術はありません。なぜなら、日本語には舌を使う「Ｒ」の発音が無いためです。
尺八にある「玉音（たまね）」と言う演奏法は、一般的に「ノドチンコ」と言われる「口蓋垂」を使った技術です。これは言葉には無いものは、表現の技術として発生しない、つまり「言葉」に無いものは「表現」に移行しない一例と考えられます。上述を総合して考えると、「音楽と自然」と考えるよりも、「音楽と言葉」・「言葉と自然」と捉えるのが妥当かと思います。
『今日本では桜が盛りを過ぎ、桜の花びらがハラハラと舞い散っていますが、サワサワと吹く風にヒラヒラと舞う桜の花びらに、心もフワフワと軽くなる思いです。』、この文章を、外国語に翻訳するのは至難の業だと思います。

９）古典文学（俳句、短歌、和歌など）と雅楽には幽玄と季語の要素がとても重要視されています。日本音楽にもこの幽玄と季語の要素が取り入れられているのでしょうか？私は日本の古典音楽や現代音楽の中にもこの幽玄の要素を感じますが貴方はどう思われますか？
日本は四季がありますから、季節の移ろいを敏感に感じ楽しんでいます。当然音楽にも取り入れられています。

１０）西洋のオーケストラを取り入れての日本の現代音楽、特に有名な作曲家として武満徹は西洋の楽器と日本の伝統楽器を取り入れての作曲をされているがその中でもタイトルや曲の中でのインスピレーションから四季のような自然の要素がうかがえる。日本の現代作曲家はオーケストラのスタイルの中にどのような日本の古典音楽の要素を取り入れているのでしょうか？
この質問に適切に答えられる知識は持ち合わせてはいません。ただ関連してお答えできるのは、武満徹さんが名作と言われる「ノヴェンバー・ステップス」で、尺八と琵琶を起用しましたが、それらの楽器の楽譜は「アドリブ」と書かれていると聞いた事があります。
　これは横山勝也氏（尺八）と鶴田錦史氏（琵琶）と言う２人の天才的な演奏家を起用したアイデアが作品を大きく左右し、この二人以外の演奏者でなければ成立しない部分が多々あったであろうことは想像に難くありません。
　きっと武満氏がこの２人の演奏を聴き、それとオーケストラを融合させるために作曲家としての腕を揮ったのだと思いますが、逆に考えれば、横山勝也氏（尺八）と鶴田錦史氏（琵琶）の演奏は武満徹氏の作曲家としての感性を刺激して余りあるものがあったのでしょう。音楽家同士、お互いが「これは！」と思うインスピレーションを持てば素晴らしい作品が生まれるきっかけとなります。

１１）熊沢様のレパートリーは古典音楽だけに止まらず現代作曲家の宮城道夫、長沢勝俊、佐藤敏直の楽曲も演奏されていますね。尺八や箏の楽曲からは現代性を強く受けますがどう思われますか？
同じ古典でも昔の人と現代人が弾くのでは当然違ってくるはずです。今を生きている人間が演奏しているのですから現代性を感じるのは当然ではないでしょうか。

12) １８００年代後半に流行した印象主義は日本の芸術から多くの影響とインスピレーションを受けたことは有名な話です。しかし特に尺八の音楽を聴いていると印象派の音楽のスタイルを感じさせられ、特にドビュッシーは５音階を用いて作曲しています。1905年に出版されたドビュッシー作曲『海』のスコアの表紙には葛飾北斎の浮世絵である富嶽三十六景『神奈川沖浪裏』が使用された。これはドビュッシーが日本文化に大きな関心があったからに違いない。ドビュッシーやその同年代の作曲家達は日本音楽を知っていたのでしょうか?
これは大変興味深いご質問です。どうでしょう？知っていたんでしょうか？ラヴェルやドビュッシーそしてサティは、日本の明治期に活躍した作曲家ですから日本の音楽に触れた可能性は「０」ではない、、、、、、、、かも知れません。
横道に逸れますが、歴史の中の興味深い出来事に、日本は鎖国をする５０年ほど前に「天正遣欧少年使節」と言う使節をイタリアに送っていますが、この少年たちは帰国後、時の太閤秀吉の前で西洋音楽を演奏したと言う記録があります。ただ彼らが日本の楽器を演奏したかどうか？日本の音楽をヨーロッパで披露したかどうか？は判りません。
しかしその当時、イタリアまではるばる訪ねて行って、何も披露しないで帰って来たんでしょうか、、、その当時のイタリアの人達は、日本の事を知りたがらなかったんでしょうか、、、、、、、、話は戻りますが、ラヴェルやドビュッシーそしてサティは、日本の音楽を知っていたんでしょうか？答えは出ませんが、その分ロマンは広がりますね。

１３）　米澤様と熊沢様は９０年代初期にペンタジアに所属されて日本人をはじめ中国人や韓国人の方々と共に活動されていますね。その中で日本音楽と中国、韓国の音楽で似ているところ違うところは何ですか？
　先ず全体として共通する箏は、楽器の素材が同じであると言う点です。箏類は桐と言う素材で出来ていますし、笛類は竹を材料にしています。演奏する音楽に付いては、演奏家である私がそれを論じるのに適切かどうか？と言う疑問もありますが、今までの経験からお答えします。韓国と中国を一緒にして比較する箏はできないので個々に比べると、韓国音楽と共通するところは５音階である点です。しかし、大きく異なる点はそのリズムです。韓国の音楽には長短（チャンダン）と呼ばれる「テンポとリズムが複合したパターン」があり、その中に変拍子が非常に豊かにあります。
日本の古典にも変拍子が見られますが、テンポと複合したパターンはありません。テンポと連動した「長短」が韓国音楽の特徴だと思います。中国音楽は、全部をひっくるめて論じるのは無理を感じます。
　それは、中国は本当に多くの他民族国家で、それぞれに持つ伝統文化が異なり、当然の事、伝承されている音楽を「同じ国の音楽」と捉えることに疑問を感じるからです。５音階の音楽もあれば７音階の音楽もあり、とても同じ文化土壌に育った音楽とは思えません。
　日本も韓国も地方により特色は様々ですが、基本的に同じ文化土壌に育った独自文化の個別バリエーションと捉えられます。（つまり、「一つの国」として感じられると言うことです。）韓国民謡の「アリラン」は、メロディーや歌詞が全然違いますが、韓国の全ての地方にあります。しかし、中国は一つの国としてその文化を捉えて論じることが無理だと感じます。

１４）　今日の日本音楽1西洋音楽の影響を受けすぎているところがあると思います。今もなお特に若者達の間で日本の伝統音楽や楽器に興味があるのでしょうか？　古典日本音楽を学びたい若者たちが通える学校はあるのですか？
日本は戦後学校での音楽教育を西洋音楽ばかりにしてしまいましたからね。今は少しずつ見直されては来ています。私達も子どもたちが将来興味を持ってくれることを願って、小学校で箏の体験プログラムや演奏を積極的に行っています。音楽大学にも邦楽の学部が徐々に増えてきてはいますが、まだまだ少ないです。

１５）　これからの日本の伝統音楽について進歩を感じられますか、それとも少しずつ日本の文化が失われている今の時代のように失われるのでしょうか、それとも残ったとしても記憶の中に止まるのでしょうか・・・どのようにお考えですか？
伝統音楽、特に古典音楽は、今までもそうであったようにこれからも「時代の淘汰の波」にさらされながら、残るべきものは残って行くでしょう。将来的に数は減って行くでしょうが、「六段の調」や「鹿の遠音」が淘汰されるとは思えません。
　生き残って行く音楽は、普遍性があり、残るべくして残る「音楽としての力」を持っており、これには「どの時代に作曲されたか？」と言う要素は全く関係無いと思っています。
しかし演奏家として、今自分が演奏している楽器が「未来永劫あり続けるか？」と言う危惧は拭い切れません。（14）の熊沢の答えにもあるように小学校を対象として箏の体験プログラム《ＹＫプログラム》を積極的に行っていますが、その際に子ども達に必ず話して聞かせる話の一つに、「楽器は演奏する人がいて、初めてその命を得る。演奏する人間がいなくなった途端、博物館でガラス越しに眺める遺物となり、楽器ではなくなってしまう。」と言う話があります。仮に「博物館でガラス越に眺める存在」になってしまったとしたら、人々の記憶に残っていたとしても楽器としては全く意味がありません。しかし、考え方を変えれば、人々が「あって欲しい」と思えば生き残り、「無くても良い」と思えば「楽器としての役割を果たしきった」とも考えられます。演奏家としてできる事は、現代に生きる演奏家として継承して行く努力はするものの、その先は次代に委ねると言う事です。
　おそらく、その時代時代で「好み」に合わせながら生き残って行くことでしょう。「伝統音楽」は、「遺跡」とは異なり歴史の記録ではありません。今も生きている文化の一つで、むしろ、食べ物（食文化）に近く、時代に合わせながら脈々と残って行くでしょう。「音楽」は順位が相当低いでしょうが、低くても良いのでその順位の中に入っていて欲しいと願っています。

米澤氏と熊沢氏には心より感謝いたします。より多くの情報を知りたい方は
米澤氏 http://homepage1.nifty.com/yonesan/ 熊沢氏 http://zipangu.com/kumazawa/ 。

フロリアーノ・テッラーノ
.
higashishinbun@aol.com

音楽専門用語補助　江副友美
　　　　　　　　　　岡井頼女さんにも感謝いたします

(Shika no tōne permormed by Miyata Kohachiro, 宮田耕八朗 in 1977 www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6ljwJoG8zU)

2009-07-13T11:27:00.054+02:00

Key points in the architecture of Korea II

From horizontal

to vertical dimension

pavilions and skyscrapers

Evolution of Korean architecture style

from Joseon period to nowadays

Korean art has its full development during Joseon period (1392 – 1910). Architecture flourishes too and lots of buildings were built in Korean style on Chinese models.
The first Korean royal palaces of Joseon kings are based on Chinese royal buildings made of pavilions, courtyards and gardens. The construction of Gyeongbokgung (경복궁, “Palace of Shining Happiness”) begins in 1394, in the third year of first Joseon king Taejo; this is the most important and the bigger of the “Five Grand Palaces” built in Seoul by Joseon dynasty. Gyeongbokgung has got some of the characteristics of Ming Chinese royal palaces i. e. courtyards and small and big pavilions set in parallel and horizontal lines and divided by gardens and ponds. The Purple City of Beijing better known as the Forbidden City is certainly the most representative and famous example of this kind of imperial palaces.
Gyeongbokgung was the official palace of Korean kings and for this reason suffered splendour and misfortunes of Korea much than other buildings. Japanese army leaded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi between 1592 and 1598 burned Gyeongbokgung in order to subdue Korean resistance. The palace was rebuilt and enlarged in 1867 by king Daewongun but during Japanese occupation (1919 – 1945) lots of its buildings were destroyed. Nowadays only few but very important buildings still remain and show the main features of Joseon Korean architecture.
Gwanghwamun (광화문) is the big three-arched southern gateway of the palace; the king only could get in the building through the middle arch. Big courtyards lead to Geunjeongjeon (근정전, “Throne hall”), the main pavilion of the palace. Lots of smaller pavilions - more than 300 - extended in the rear of throne hall and they were used by courtiers and courtesans. The most significant of these pavilions are Gyeonghoeru (경회루, “Royal banquets hall”) - a wooden and stone building erected on an artificial island in the lotus pond - and famous Hyangwonjeong (향원정, “Pavilion of Far-Reaching Fragrance”) built in 1873 on an artificial island of Hyangwonji (향원지) lake and it is reachable through Chwihyanggyo (취향교, “Bridge Intoxicated with Fragrance”).
Orientation of Gyeongbokgung structures is horizontal more than vertical and buildings are set up in length and width more than in height. This characteristic is peculiar of Chinese and Far Eastern architecture. Pavilions' elongated and not elevated shape is due not only to aesthetic sense and style. Wood is the main building material of Far East architecture together with stone used for foundations and podium. Tree trunks used as pillars allow horizontal more than vertical extension of wooden structures.
Dancheong (단청) - Korean wooden structures decoration technique - develop in Gyeongbokgung buildings and roofs and pillars are patterned with floral and geometric motifs. Colours of dancheong are white, blue, red, yellow and black which in Far East symbolism respectively represent West, East, South, middle and North.
Purpose of dancheong is not only aesthetic but also practical; it shields wooden structures from rain and other bad weather and it covers up junctures and imperfections of wood. Foreigner diplomatic missions in Korea were very surprised and were full of admiration looking at colours' brightness and at decorations' variety of dancheong. Gyeongbokgung compound shows us roofs' style during Joseon period. Slopes are wide and turned up as it is common in Far East architecture to shield wooden walls from heavy rain and summer noonday sun. Roof of gates and pavilions is quite always double as in Gwanghwamun and it is crowned with yongmaru (용마루), a top white roof ridge which symbolizes the dragon “yong” king's allegory.
Gyeongbokgung is the model of four Seoul royal palaces: Changgyeonggung (창경궁) built by king Sejong the Great (세종대왕, 世宗大王, 1418–1450), Deoksugung (덕수궁) built by prince Wolsan older brother of king Seongjong (1457-1494), Gyeonghuigung (경희궁, "Palace of Serene Harmony") and the well-known Changdeokgung (창덕궁, “Palace of Prospering Virtue”) or Donggwol (東闕, "East Palace") built by king Taejong (태종, 太宗, 1400–1418) and completed in 1412.
Changdeokgung - registered on Unesco's World Cultural Heritage List - suffered many sacks and recostructions. Its most important buildings are Injeongjeon (“Throne Hall”) and Huwon (“Rear garden”) also called Biwon (“Secret garden”). Injeongjeon harks back to Geunjeongjeon in its stone pedestal, in the wooden structure and the double-sloped roof. Buyongjeong “Floating Lotus Pavilion” was built in 1707 and it was used for end of study celebrations by real library scholars. This pavilion harks back to Gyeonghoeru though Buyongjeong is a very original building: two pillars are based on the pond and the pavilion itself looks floating just an inch from the water.
This kind of pavilion is influenced by Buddhist symbolism and it represents the lotus flower which grows up from the mud and blossoms. There are other pavilions like Buyongjeong in Korean architecture, like Songgwangsa (송광사) Zen temple gate and Hwallaejeong of Seongyojang (선교장) which completely lays in a lotus pond. A similar typology of architecture is “One Pillar Pagoda” (Chùa Một Cột, formally Diên Hựu tự 延祐寺 or Liên Hoa Đài 蓮花臺) of Hanoi in Vietnam which rests upon one pillar in a lotus pond.
Joseon tomb architecture fuses the model of contemporary Chinese Ming graves with Three Kingdoms period tumuli like the tomb of Sejong the Great built in 1450 at Yeoju, in Gyeonggi province. Middle tumulus is protected by big statues of animals and armed guardians like in the Spirit Way which leads to Ming tombs near Beijing.
Joseon period is the time of walls of gates and of fortresses built to face invasions and wars. Sungnyemun (숭례문, “Gate of Exalted Ceremonies”) – National Treasure 1 – better known as Namdeamun (남대문, “Great Southern Gate”), built from 1395 to 1398 by king Taejo has been one of the well-known Seoul symbols till its arson on 10th February 2008. Namdeamun is a stone gate with a wooden double-sloped roof and it acted as greeting hall for diplomatic missions which reached city and as bulwark against foreign armies and against Korean tigers coming from the near mountains. Arson completely destroyed the original wooden roof which was famous to be the oldest wooden structure in Seoul. At present only the stone basement with arch still remains; restoration of Namdeamun will be very expensive and will last more than three years. Heunginjimun (동대문, “Gate of Rising Benevolence”) better known as Dongdaemun (흥인지문, “Great East Gate”) was built in Seoul walls erected by king Taejo. It is very similar to Namdaemun and rebuilt and restored many times.
Hwaseong (화성, “Brilliant Fortress”) is the best example of military architecture. It was built from 1794 to 1796 at Suwon not far away from Seoul by architect Jeong Yak-yong for want of king Jeongjo (1776–1800) in honour of his father prince Sado. King Jeongjo thought to build Hwaseong as the fortress of new capital Suwon. His project to move capital from Seoul to Suwon shattered after his death but Brilliant Fortress still remains nowadays. Architect Jeong Yak-yong was able to combine together Chinese and Japanese military architecture elements like the big blocks of lower part of walls and Korean elements like coloured wooden pavilions. Fusion between grey stone and colours of wood gives the impression of an harmonic contrast. Hwahongmun (화홍문) is the bridge-gate of fortress under which river Suwoncheon passes and it well symbolizes fusion between military efficiency and functionality and Korean art style. Massive stone arches of bridge-gate and red wooden roof typical of Joseon palaces are joined together. Difference between colours and materials is big though it is elegant and harmonic.
Neo-Confucianism promoted as official religion by kings stunts religious architecture in Joseon period. However in 1897 at the end of Joseon period Wongudan (원구단, “Altar of Heaven”) was built in Seoul by king Gojong (고종, 高宗, 1863–1907) to bring back to the fore the harvest propitiatory rite which had been abolished centuries before because of Korean submission to Chinese emperor. Nowadays Hwanggungu “Yellow Palace Shrine” an octagonal three-storied pavilion built in 1899 is the only remaining building of Wongudan compound and it is in the courtyard of Chosun Hotel. Hwanggungu’s model is the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests of Beijing’s Temple of Heaven but architecture style is whole Korean in materials in shape and in the decorations. Contrast between Hwanggungu and contemporary surrounding buildings or contrast between Namdaemun and close modern skyscrapers is typical of Far East capitals where old and new architecture, ancient and modern, past and future cohabit often with no links between them.
Wongudan is the last Korean style building built in Korea. Japanese occupation destroyed some of the most important Korean historical buildings and built official buildings to symbolize Japan rule over Korea. The Japanese Government-General Building (조선총독부 청사) built in 1926 symbolically in front of Gyeongbokgung was demolished in 1996 to wipe out Korean recent painful events. The Seoul City Hall (서울특별시 청사) of 1926 is an eclectic style building the front of which resembles the National Diet Building of Tokyo (国会議事堂) built few years later. These buildings show a rough and confused style which is peculiar of Japanese architecture of beginning of XX century but preserve horizontal dimensions peculiar of Far East architecture instead of not much space and of different materials used. Architectonic symbols of new Korea are all vertical, high, very high like the N Seoul Tower (엔 서울타워) built in 1969 on Mount Namsan, 63 Building (63 빌딩) completed in 1985, Jongno Tower and other Seoul’s skyscrapers, all-beautiful and shining but different, very different from Korean style and very similar to other buildings all over the world. At Incheon the Songdo Incheon Twin Towers 613 meters high are under construction and they will complete New Songdo City (송도신도시) becoming tallest buildings of Far East. Does some traditional spirit still survive in Korean contemporary architecture? Gyeongju Tower (경주타워) is a very special building completed in 2008 because in its body there is the empty outline of 68 meters high nine-storied wooden pagoda of Hwangryongsa temple (황룡사 9층 목탑 모형) which was commissioned by Queen Seondeok of Silla (선덕여왕, 善德女王, 632-647). It was the largest pagoda ever built in Korea and it is nowadays destroyed. Modern and ancient are fused together in Gyeongju Tower.
Finally Cheonggyecheon (청계천) a compound which added traditional style to modern architecture. The drainage canal Gaecheon had been built in first decades of Joseon period in the heart of capital Seoul and it flowed into river Han. In the course of time canal has been invaded by huts and refuse and for this reason it became the symbol of Seoul’s poverty and urban decay. In 1950s Gaecheon has been covered up and a high road and then a causeway has been built. From water of stream to asphalt of road. In 2003, former mayor of Seoul and President of South Korea Lee Myung-bak (이명박, 李明博) decided to restore ancient canal Gaecheon and to build a promenade in Seoul downtown. Cheonggyecheon was completed in 2005 after many criticisms and scepticisms. It is a stream lighted up by night which takes water from river Han and flows across stones and bridges in Seoul core. Two historical bridges Gwangtonggyo and Supyogyo have been excavated and restored and Cheonggyecheon imitates in a modern style the streams of Posekjeong (“Stone Abalone Pavilion”) and of Ongnyucheon (“Jade Torrent”) in Changdeokgung.
Modern architecture of Korea might get inspired by Cheonggyecheon style to regain ancient Korean spirit which is missing in nowadays high and featureless buildings.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

2009-07-13T11:27:00.044+02:00

Key points in the architecture of Korea I
.
Pagodas and temples
.
wooden and stone jewels

Dawn and evolution
of Korean architectonic style
from Three Kingdoms to Unified Silla

The architecture of Korea has been influenced more than other arts by historical events of Korean Peninsula. Architecture, the most representative of figurative arts, is like the mirror of human beings: it undergoes all nation’s changes and occurrences. From history dawn to painful recent past Korean Peninsula’s buildings, temples, streets and cities are the attestation of a peculiar historical landmark’s style. We can discover and understand architecture’s message even many years later.First attestations of Korean architecture date back to Three Kingdoms period (57 BC – 668 AD) and are the Korean kings’ tumuli. The most famous tumulus is Cheonmachong (천마총) nearby Gyeongju (V – VI centuries), a tomb of an unknown sovereign of Silla Kingdom. Korean tumuli show some analogies with contemporary royal tombs of Japan during Kofun period (250 – 538).In Korea religious architecture constituted of temples and pagodas begins to develop mainly at the end of IV century in consequence of introduction of Buddhism to the country. In Korea pagoda - the most typical building of Buddhist architecture which derivates from Indian stupa - has got its rich soil to develop in many original typologies. As for painting, sculpture and pottery, influence of Chinese art in Korean architecture is powerful as well though Korean masters are able to create “Korean style” masterpieces which have influence in Japanese art in turn.The three pagodas of Mireuksa temple (미륵사), together with Jeongnimsa Pagoda (부여 정림사지), are the oldest known in Korea. Mireuksa nearby Iksan City was built in 602 during south-western Baekje Kingdom (18 BC – 66 AD) by King Mu (무왕, 600 – 640) and shows the Korean temples characteristic features yet, like the presence in the courtyard of two or three lined up pagodas. At Mireuksa there were three pagodas as archaeological excavations stated: two stone nine floors pagodas and a wooden nine floors pagoda in the middle. Pagodas were built by artist Abiji as Samguk-Yusa (삼국유사, “Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms”) tells, a book written at the end of XIII century by Buddhist monk Il-yeon (일연, 1206 - 1289) about legends and stories of Three Kingdoms period. Samguk-Yusa tells the legend of temple origin too: Maitreya Buddha, the Future Buddha, appeared to King Mu and to the Queen near a pond on Mount Yonghwasan. Mireuksa was exactly built in the place of the dried-up pond.
Only a part of the western stone pagoda still remains and the eastern stone pagoda was rebuilt, anyway these pagodas are perhaps the biggest ever built in Korea. In addition to their historical and artistic preciousness, Mireuksa pagodas are important to observe how stone pagodas were built on the model of wooden pagodas. Stone pagodas show building elements and techniques which look very similar to those of wooden pagodas.Pagoda develop also in the south-eastern Silla Kingdom. In Bunhwangsa (분황사, “Fragrant Emperor Temple”) there is a stone pagoda erected in 634 by Queen Seondeok of Silla (선덕여왕, 善德女王, 632-647), the 30th National Treasure of Korea. Originally pagoda had nine storeys but only three still remain and upper floors fell inside. In this building there are some of the most significant features of Korean pagodas i.e. purity of lines, compactness and harmony of descendant storeys, absence of decorations, use of stone blocks instead of bricks as it is usual in Chinese pagodas of Tang period (618-907) or instead of wood as it is usual in Japanese pagodas. Nevertheless in this period Hwangyongsa temple (황룡사, “Golden/Yellow Dragon Temple” or “Imperial Dragon Temple”) wooden pagoda was built, a very tall building which had nine storeys. The number nine of Korean pagodas’ storeys probably symbolizes the nine nations destined to submit to Silla Kingdom rule. The pagoda is no more left standing and it is symbolically shaped in the new Gyeongju Tower’ structure completed in 2008. Queen Seondeok also erected in 647 one of the most famous Korean historical buildings, Cheomseongdae (첨성대, “Platform for observing stars”) at Gyeongju, one of the oldest known astronomical observatories in the world. Samguk-Yusa draws a portrait of Queen Seondeok as a very intelligent woman. She was very passionate about astronomy and for this reason Cheomseongdae was built to promote Korean court astronomers’ studies. Seondeok was an astronomer herself and she was able to foresee a solar eclipse and to correct Chinese astronomers’ calculations. Cheomseongdae is a still mysterious building. Its shape is very special: it is a square base tower and cylindrical structure with a square window and a tapered top with square building crowning. Union between square and round shapes is symbolic: in Korean and Far Eastern culture square is the emblem of earth, circle is the emblem of sky and stars. In fact the tower was a kind of “link” between world and sky. The number of Cheomseongdae’s granite stones is very symbolic too: the tower is formed of 362 blocks as lunar calendar days, the basis has 12 stones as year’s months and the building has 27 levels to honour Seondeok, twenty-seventh sovereign of Silla Kingdom. Sunlight does not penetrate tower’s window only on the summer solstice day and for this reason the tower itself was used as a calendar. In Unified Silla period (668 – 935), the whole Korean Peninsula is gathered and appeased in the same kingdom and has friendly relations with Tang China. Architecture develops and flourishes together with other arts. Bulguksa (불국사, “Temple of Buddha Land”), perhaps the most famous Korean temple, was erected in 751 during Gyeongdeok sovereign by first minister Kim Daeseong (김대성) to pacify his present life parents’ souls. Temple was completed in 774. Bulguksa suffered damage from wars and invasions and from the original Silla period building only stone blocks basis and temple entrance staircase still remain. Sokgyemun, the entrance staircase, has got 33 stairs like Buddhist enlightenment steps. Two bridges, Cheongungyo (청운교, “Blue cloud bridge) and Baegungyo (백운교, “White cloud bridge”), the 23th National Treasure of Korea, lead to sacred area through Jahamun (자하문, “Mauve Mist Gate”). In the courtyard there are the two famous pagodas Seokgatap (석가탑, “Sakyamuni Pagoda”) and Dabotap (다보탑, “Pagoda of Many Treasures”), the 21st and 22nd National Treasures of Korea. Pagodas are very close each other although very different and according to tradition they were both made by artist Asadal. Seokgatap has three floors and it shows the peculiar features of Korean tradition i. e. absence of ornamentation and shapes’ proportions harmony. Dabotap shows on the other hand a very well-constructed and complex structure with a detailed and original decoration: the basis is square with stairs on sides, there are four bamboo trunk shaped pillars which support a three planes structure formed of an octagonal balustrade, of a lotus flower shaped basis and of an octagonal crowning on the top. Only one lion still remains of the four existing on the basis, another one is at British Museum of London. Contrast between Dabotap and Seokgatap is profound and harmonic. The two pagodas are symbols of two different Buddhist entities described in Lotus Sūtra (법화경, 法華經). Seokgatap is dedicated to Sakyamuni - one the historical names of Buddha - and represents by its simplicity the possible way to Nirvana enlightenment which can be accessible to all. Dabotap by its complexity and beauty represents fulfilled Nirvana status. As the story goes artist Asadal was so much inspired in building pagodas that he forgot and repudiated his wife. She went to Bulguksa to meet his husband but in those days temple was off limits for women. For this reason she went nearby to Yeongji “Shadows Pond” to see her husband reflection on the water but she could only see Dabotap and no image of Asadal and she threw herself into the pond believing her husband was died. In reality Asadal was working on Seokgatap which for this reason was not reflected on Shadows Pond’s water surface. For this reason Seokgatap is called also Muyeongtap “No shadow pagoda”.Not far from Bulguksa temple at foot of the sacred Mount Tohamsan there is Seokguram Grotto (석굴암), an hermitage erected by Kim Daeseong to pacify his previous life parents’ souls in 742 c.a. which was originally called Seokbulsa "Stone Buddha Temple". The grotto is famous for the 3.50 meters Buddha statue. Buddha is represented while reaching enlightenment as his right hand touching ground shows. Seokguram expresses a peculiar Buddhist architecture symbolism. Passage which leads to Buddha statue is symbol of the earth and of the way to Nirvana. Nirvana itself is represented by the round room in which the Buddha and the other divinities statues stand. Architecture and sculture join together to create an imagery well-known by pilgrims who went to temple. Seokguram has got a special ventilation made on purpose to avoid statues damage caused by humidity. Proportions of whole work are grounded on a very harmonic ratio. Seokguram is the highest stage of Silla engineering development and Korean art of this period foreshadows later ages’ architectonic jewels yet.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

2009-04-29T20:10:00.015+02:00

The painted life of faded Korea

Hyewon and genre painting

in Joseon Korea

Once upon a time in Korea women’s beauty was not unveiled but just portrayed in her mysterious sensuality through the hanbok pleats. Once upon a time in Korea lovers met in secret by moonlight. Once upon a time in Korea seasons were welcomed by yangban (양반, 兩班) ruling class members, formed of literary and martial ranks, who drank and listened to music alongside of kisaeng (기생, 妓生), female artists who entertained with music, poems and dance. This time is Joseon Dynasty (1392 – 1910), perhaps the happiest period of Korean history. In Joseon period Korean culture spreads and consolidates through the whole Korean peninsula.

During the last two centuries of Joseon Dynasty genre painting called pungsokhwa or pungsokdo developed and took inspiration from contemporary everyday life. Korean painters keep painting landscapes in Chinese Southern School style (南宗画) also known as “Literati painting” (文人画) and at same time they paint Korean real life. In these genre paintings nature and seasons’ colours are not the only protagonists but men and above all women are main subjects as well. Woman is the emblem of beauty and the symbol of a new artistic feeling. Painter’s hand immortalizes everyday fleeting moments and genre paintings after two centuries show the lively images of springtime conversations under the blossoming trees, images of courtships to the sweet sound of geomungo (거문고 or현금), the traditional Korean zither, images of summertime afternoons games. Life comes into art and painters describe its amusing, melancholic, lonely, love moments like Japanese artists do at the same time in Japan with ukiyo-e (浮世絵).

Shin Yun-bok (신윤복, 申潤福) or Shin Ka-gwon who is better known by his pen name Hyewon (혜원, 蕙園) meaning “a garden full with orchids” is distinguished from the others Korean artists by his elegant and sensual style. We know only few informations about Hyewon’s life: he was born in 1758 and he presumptively died around 1813. He was probably tall and very handsome and he was son and

grandson of famous court painters, according to Far Eastern tradition of artist families. As the story goes he was banned from dohwaseo, the Royal Bureau of Paining of Joseon Dynasty, because his paintings were considered too much sensual and erotic. Actually his works, even the most erotic, are painted in a dainty and elegant way; his paintings are up-to-date and at same time imbued with a slight melancholy, the melancholy of time going by.
Hyewon’s most famous painting is Portrait of a Beauty (미인도, 美人圖), one of Korean art representative icons. In this picture a middle aged woman perhaps a kisaeng is portrayed wearing an hanbok; she slightly glances down and in her eyes there is a shadow of sadness, perhaps of love pangs. No one woman portrait is more introspective than this painting in Korean and Far Eastern art before. Women are main characters of Hyewon’s pictures. Contemporary Korean writer Lee Jeong-myeong got inspired by Hyewon’s artist figure for the female protagonist of his book Painter of the wind written in 2007 adapted into the movie Portrait of a Beauty by Jeon Yoon-soo in 2008. In the book Painter of the wind Hyewon is a female painter instead of a male painter. The poster of the movie Portrait of a Beauty shows the good-looking actress Kim Min-sun as the beauty of Hyewon’s painting.
Most of Hyewon’s known works are part of Hyewon pungsokdo (혜원풍속도), an album of 30 signed genre painting pictures. This album was purchased by chance in 1930 by scholar Jeon Hyeopil at an antique store in Osaka, Japan. With the help of journalist Oh Sechang, Jeon Hyeopil managed to piece together again this album which is the 135th National Treasure of South Korea and it is at Seoul’s Gansong Art Museum founded by Jeon Hyeopil himself. Subjects of Hyewon pungsokdo are various and are all inspired by yangban everyday life. Every picture’s scenery in the open air communicates a deep link between nature and people: trees, flowers, seasons, moon are the background of delicate love scenes like in famous painting The lovers under the moon. In this picture and in its similar A secret meeting under the moon and A secret trip at night, night enshrouds human beings’ secrets and it is their adventure mate and their secrets’ confidant; spectators like us feel to spy on a secret scene. In other paintings, like A boat party on the clean river, An amusing day in a spring field or Dancing together the geommu, the traditional sword dance, we can observe Joseon Korea social life’s collective rituals like sipping tea or liquors under autumn leaves or playing traditional games ssangyuk or tuho. Woman is the real protagonist of Hyewon pungsokdo: from red-light district scene of Who will be the hero at the brothel? to the girls enjoying in Dano spring day of A scenery on Dano day such as the two women speaking to each other in the picture Gossiping at the well at night. The men are often almost hidden behind trees or walls eavesdropping on women’s speech; but men can’t enter into female soul’s unknown world. In this artistic conception of woman there are some resemblances between Hyewon and the contemporary Japanese painter Kitagawa Utamaro (喜多川歌麿, 1753 - 1806) who in some ukiyo-e painted similar subjects like the print Boating on the Sumida River of 1785 or Pleasure-boating on the Sumida River of 1788-90, in which there are men and women on a boat floating on the river by moonlight just like Hyewon’s A boat party on the clean river.
Hyewon was not famous during his lifetime as other Korean contemporary painter Kim Hong-do (김홍도, 金弘道), better known by his pen name Danwon (단원, 檀園) who was one of the most important members of dohwaseo, born in 1745 and died around 1806. Danwon’s known works are the 25 paintings on Korean paper hanji of the album Danwon pungsokdo now at Seoul’s National Museum of Korea, nominated as the 527th National Treasure of South Korea. Unlike Hyewon, painter of yangban, Danwon depicts above all everyday life of sangmin (이성민, 李晟敏) constituted by peasants, fishermen, craftsmen. Labours of agriculture of fishing and of craftsmanship take turns yearly like religious rites, as we can see in painting Plowing a rice field or Threshing rice and in works like Fishing and Weaving a mat. Though Danwon’s common people paintings don’t give the impression of their hard works but of a lively industry and a poetic harmony. Some rest moments are depicted as well for example in Jumak, a Korean

traditional tavern, and in Lunch time in which we see some peasants resting and eating together. Perhaps one of the most representative Danwon’s work is A laundry place where four women are doing the washing near a torrent and are speaking to each other while a man is eavesdropping them with his face hidden by a fan. This scene is very similar to Hyewon’s Gossiping at the well at night but in the painting by Danwon “distance” between man and women is bigger because of class difference and we gather that by looking at man’s gat (갓), the exclusive hat of yangban members.

Yangban and sangmin are depicted together in paintings by Kim Deuk-sin (김득신, 金得臣), the last of the main artists of pungsokhwa, son of the court painter Kim Eungri and member himself of dohwaseo. Kim Deuksin, better known by his pen name Geungjae (긍재, 兢齋), was born in 1754 and died in 1822. In his picture Bansangdo “yangban and sangmin” we observe the encounter on the road of a rich yangban man on horseback with two peasants piously bowing to him. In this scene Korean traditional hats mean very much: the difference between the yangban gat and the sangmin paeraengi (패랭이) stands for the insuperable social wall which strongly separates the two classes. Gat and paeraengi are very different not only in shape but also in

material: gat is made from horsehair and bamboo, paeraengi is made from grass. The painting Paseokdo “breaking serenity” shows an old couple who go after a black and white cat who has took away some food from their house. The scene gives us a slice of life of Korean common people in Joseon period and makes us smile.
For Joseon genre painters sangmin people are depicted often in their funny and grotesque features but also in their human bad and good habits. Pungsokhwa artists paint everyday life of Korea in a lyrical and sensitive way which moves deeply also nowadays viewers and gives us the lost image of a Korea which is no more.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

2009-02-12T23:22:00.019+01:00

On the occasion of

Bird's eye view

Mountains, rivers, fog:
landscape in Far Eastern art
.
.

In Chinese language the word landscape has many variations one of which is shānchuān (山川, “mountain-river”). The link between landscape and art in Far East is ancient and the first attestations appeare in Chinese painting during the IV century. Unlike Western concept of art as copy from nature, Far East painting is mainly feeling of nature, an imagination born in the artist soul’ depth. Far Eastern painters don’t paint real landscapes but soul settings like visions of mountains, rivers, solitary monasteries on the top of unreachable peaks which give a message of emotion and remark. Contours are shaded, painting becomes attached to calligraphy. In these paintings human beings are absent or they are simple, reduced, small apparitions on a stage of which nature and its violent beauty are the only protagonists.
Western perspective is unknown for Far Eastern artists who prefer give spectators not only one point of view but severals, a look which enables eyes to “fly” in the painted landscape. This kind of perspective is called bird’s eye view.
Chinese painting of landscape culminates during Song Dynasty (960-1279). In this period painting style called shan shui (山水, “mountain-water”) develops. This style is characterized by images of steep mountains, inaccessible gullies and impetuous rivers. During Song era two painting schools develop: Northern Song and Southern Song painting schools. Northern School paintings present harsh landscapes with rocky mountains and twisted rivers which leave no space for sky’s light emptiness. Southern School aka Literati painting present lower and less steep mountains which make possible to look at sky or at misty valleys or lakes whose contours are faded. Looking at these paintings, it seems we can listen to landscapes’ silence.
Painting of China during Song Dynasty influences Korea art as well. Korean artists develop Chinese painters’ austere landscape models in a more vivacious way. Korean painting’s brushstrokes are more marked and less shaded than Chinese. Korean landscape painting is more corporeal, less foggy, its clashes are stronger.
Japanese artists hark back to Chinese landscape paintings to create their own style. First Japanese landscape painters are Buddhist monks and they stay for a short or long time in Chinese Buddhist monasteries where study Chinese paintings. Otherwise they get inspired by paintings which Chinese monks bring into Japan. Japanese painters direct their attention above all to Southern painting style’s emptiness, a characteristic influenced by Chán Buddhism, which is called Zen in Japan. Japanese panting’s landscape is more delicate and less severe than Chinese. There are two styles in Japanese painting, kara-e (唐絵) and yamato-e (やまと絵), “Chinese style painting” and “Japanese style painting”. Yamato-e will develop and it will give orgin to other painting schools, like Tosa (土佐派, XV century), Kanō (狩野派, XV-XVI centuries) and Rinpa (琳派, XVII century). These schools will subsequently originate ukiyo-e style (浮世絵). Ukiyo-e are the last movement of Japanese traditional art and they represent maybe the most complete example of Far Eastern art conception of a “felt”, “evoked” landscape more than a “seen”, “described”, “portrayed” landscape. A landscape which is never real but imaginative and ambiguous also if it is drawn on real places indicated with their real names.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

(www.mostre.fondazione-crmo.it/2008-2009/)

2009-01-06T16:55:00.003+01:00

女手 Onnade

La mano delle donne

La letteratura del nuovo Giappone

tra lotta alla tradizione

e reminescenze classiche

Quella giapponese è forse l’unica letteratura ad essere più conosciuta grazie ai nuovi scrittori che a quelli della tradizione classica. Questo avviene perché almeno dopo la Seconda Guerra Mondiale nel mondo c’è stato un crescente interesse per la cultura del Sol Levante e ciò ha reso possibile non solo la traduzione di nuovi libri, ma anche la diffusione globale del nuovo linguaggio artistico e cinematografico nipponico. Negli anni ’60 del secolo scorso iniziano ad essere tradotti e conosciuti anche in Occidente autori novecenteschi come Kawabata Yasunari, Tanizaki Jun’ichiro e Mishima Yukio; altri scrittori come Fukazawa Shichiro e Ishikawa Jun, già famosi in Giappone, continuavano ad essere quasi del tutto oscuri. Mishima Yukio è senz’altro lo scrittore più noto, ma anche quello meno letto, se tralasciamo i suoi libri più famosi. La sua singolare vicenda umana, fatta di idealismo, tradizione e insieme anticonformismo, lo ha reso una leggenda sia in vita sia in morte. In questi scrittori cominciava a rivelarsi in tutta la sua tragicità, la crisi della società giapponese nel secondo dopoguerra. L’imperatore Hirohito, subito dopo il tracollo militare del Sol Levante, negò pubblicamente la sua appartenenza alla sfera divina e ammise la sua natura fin troppo umana di sovrano di un paese sconfitto. La paura della bomba atomica che iniziava a diffondersi tra la popolazione mondiale per i Giapponesi era ormai entrata nella quotidianità, anche a causa della vicinanza geografica dei conflitti di Corea e in seguito di quello del Vietnam. In questa atmosfera di angoscia e disagio, cresceva il disincanto di fronte ai valori tradizionali, soprattutto da parte delle nuove generazioni, cresciute nella consapevolezza della sconfitta.La società giapponese si trasformava profondamente. Uno dei più grandi mutamenti degli anni successivi fu di certo la nascita di una nuova figura di donna, il cui ruolo nella comunità e soprattutto nella sfera culturale diveniva sempre più forte.
Non è un caso che Kitchen (Kitchin, 1988), uno dei libri più innovativi degli ultimi anni, sia stato scritto da una donna, Yoshimoto Banana, figlia del poeta e critico letterario Yoshimoto Takaaki. Il nome che la scrittrice ha scelto per sé e che l’ha aiutata nel suo strepitoso successo mondiale, Banana, oltre ad essere semplice e facile da ricordare, ha anche il sapore ironico della dissacrazione; eppure questo nome ha anche un ascendente di sapore elegantemente letterario: il banano, bashō, era la pianta preferita dal maestro di haiku Matsuo Bashō che appunto lo scelse come suo pseudonimo. Le figure che compaiono nei libri di Yoshimoto Banana, per lo più donne nel periodo dell’adolescenza, vivono esistenze difficili, tormentate, eppure sempre tese verso una possibile serenità e pace interiore. Yayoi, protagonista adolescente di Presagio Triste (Kanashii Yokan, 1991), Tsugumi, la ragazza bellissima e impossibile dell’omonimo libro uscito nel 1992, Mao, la pittrice dotata di poteri sovrannaturali di L’ultima amante di Hachikō (Hachikō no saigo no koibito, 1998), sono donne dalla grande vitalità e dal disperato bisogno di uccidere la propria solitudine. Alla fine troveranno delle timide vie d’uscita nella possibilità appena svelata di costruire rapporti con uomini dalla leggera anima infantile. Infatti, come le donne dei romanzi di Banana sono delle mamme senza figli sole ed inquiete, gli uomini sono dei bambini da proteggere. Il linguaggio è quello giovane e liquido dei dialoghi dei fumetti manga, lo stile spezzato ed essenziale con profondi richiami alle immagini del cinema e della televisione. Eppure nelle descrizioni dei paesaggi, della natura che cambia con l’orologio delle stagioni, come il mare in Tsugumi che sembra quasi mostrarsi nel rumore e nel suo acre profumo, si sente il richiamo della tradizione letteraria giapponese, che più di ogni altra è scandita dalle variazioni dell’anno. E la notte, il momento più vero e profondo della vita di ognuno, è lo scenario magico di incontri tra solitudini e di apparizioni di fantasmi. Quei fantasmi che persistono anche tra le strade illuminate e tecnologiche di Tōkyō.
La pace interiore che appare come fioca speranza tutta da costruire nelle pagine finali di Yoshimoto Banana, è invece pienamente raggiunta dalle eroine dei romanzi vendutissimi di Setouchi Harumi. Amica di Kawabata e Mishima, nel 1973, all’età di 51 anni, dopo avere abbandonato famiglia e amante, scelse di cambiare radicalmente la sua esistenza e di entrare nel monastero buddista Chūson-ji in Hiraizumi nella prefettura di Iwate scegliendo come nuovo nome Jakuchô. Setouchi Harumi è famosissima: appare spesso in tv e una volta al mese tiene una vivace predica sulla felicità ai tantissimi fedeli che accorrono da ogni parte del paese per vederla. La letteratura in Giappone è anche un fenomeno mediatico. In Hiei (Hiei, 1979), romanzo dal sapore fortemente autobiografico, Toshiko è una scrittrice famosa che dopo una vita che brucia di passione amorosa per un uomo già sposato, decide di ritirarsi dal mondo in un tempio buddista sul monte Hiei. Raggiungerà così la pace interiore e il distacco dalle sofferenze terrene. Lo stesso destino di redenzione aspetta dopo un amore disperato anche Tami, la geisha de La virtù femminile (Jōtoku, 1963).
La speranza di salvezza scompare nei libri delle scrittrici venute alla ribalta negli ultimi anni. La società si fa inesorabilmente più spietata e lascia ai margini chi non si fa trasportare nei suoi ingranaggi e non ha soldi da spendere. E’ il caso dei romanzi noir di Kirino Natsuo, che descrive con uno stile glaciale, quasi da verbale di polizia, tutte le deviazioni cui può arrivare l’odio nell’animo femminile. In Out, (Out, 1998), quattro mogli tradite e maltrattate si vendicano dei rispettivi mariti con una serie di crudeli delitti. Ma la colpa orrenda di cui si sono macchiate non lascia alcuna possibilità di scampo. In Morbide guancie (Yawarakana hoho, 1999) la relazione extra-coniugale di Kasumi viene punita con la misteriosa scomparsa della figlioletta Yuka. Annullata ogni distinzione tra moralità e immoralità, i personaggi della Kirino annegano tutti nella tragica impossibilità di essere felici.
Sulla scia di queste scrittrici celebri, in Giappone sono usciti dei libri scritti dalle mani di improvvisate memorialiste delle proprie vite dissolute, raccolte di racconti erotici scritti in chiave autobiografica. Con sicuro successo di pubblico. Il caso più famoso è quello della attrice di film hard Iijima Ai, gìà presentatrice della televisione giapponese, morta nel dicembre 2008 in solitudine e in circostanze misteriose nella sua casa di Tōkyō. Nel suo libro Platonic Sex (2000) racconta in prima persona le sue esperienze erotiche, dalla prostituzione alla riconciliazione con i propri genitori, fino al suo felice matrimonio e al successo televisivo. Questo libro è quasi una risposta, ironica più che dissacratoria, ai libri a lieto fine di Setouchi Harumi. Le protagoniste femminili di Harumi, donne di successo e appassionate amanti, approdano al sereno distacco dalle umane passioni nella conversione e nel ritiro monacale. In Platonic Sex l’io narrante, ossia la scrittrice, dopo tanti trascorsi non fugge dal mondo ma giunge nell’ambiente dello spettacolo e della celebrità. Tuttavia approda ad un suo equilibrio finale e riesce a raccontare in modo sereno e distaccato la sua vicenda personale.
In Giappone la penna è tornata nelle mani delle donne. Tornata. Infatti la letteratura giapponese ha nella scrittura femminile i pilastri su cui si regge, le poetesse di epoca Heian Murasaki Shikibu e Sei Shōnagon, entrambe vissute sullo scorcio del XI secolo. La Storia di Genji (Genji Monogatari), il capolavoro di Murasaki Shikibu, è stato più volte tradotto in giapponese moderno da grandi scrittori del novecento. Il commento e l’adattamento in lingua moderna di questa opera occupò gran parte della vita di Tanizaki, che ne pubblicò edizioni nel 1949 e nel 1964. La morte non concesse invece a Kawabata di terminare la sua versione già iniziata. I lettori hanno accolto con freddezza queste pubblicazioni fino a quando, nel 1989, è uscito l’ultimo volume della traduzione del Nyonin Genji Monogatari, “Il racconto di Genji al femminile” ad opera di Setouchi Harumi.
Il successo di pubblico è stato grandissimo, soprattutto tra i giovani, che per la prima volta hanno avuto la possibilità di leggere questo grande classico in un linguaggio vivace e familiare. Ma forse non sta solo nella scelta del lessico il segreto di Harumi. Infatti chi meglio di una donna, cancellando ogni distanza di tempo, può intendere tutti i segreti dell’oscurità profonda dell’animo femminile che ha scritto il Genji Monogatari?

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com

女手

女達の手

.

伝統文学との葛藤とクラシックの

.
模倣を取り入れた日本の新しい文学

現在よく知られている日本の文学はおそらく世に新しい風をもたらしたクラシックの作家達であろう。このことは第二次世界大戦後に世界中が日本の文学のレベルの高さに気づき
多大な興味を示したため、多くの日本人作家の翻訳がなされ世に出版され世界中で日本文学に触れる機会が増え特に映画に多くの世界中の人々が興味を持った。1960年代には川端康成、谷崎潤一郎、三島由紀夫といった日本の文学史において重要な作家達の翻訳が始まり西洋に出版されるようになった。しかし、石川淳、深沢七郎　といった日本の古典文学者の名は日本では有名であったが世界に知られることはなかった。三島由紀夫の名は当然世界で一番知られている名であるが読まれるのは残念ながら有名な作品に止まり
その他の数多くの作品は世界で読まれることはない。なぜ三島由紀夫の名が世界中に知られているかというと彼の人生は独特であり特に人目を引く自殺を図ったことが多くの人に興味をもたらしたのであろう。特に三島由紀夫の作品には第二次世界大戦後の日本の社会の崩壊や危機を感じることができる。なぜならば世界二次大戦中の天皇である裕仁によって敗戦のニュースをラジオから耳にした日本人の多くが今までの天皇に対する考え方が変わった事や原子爆弾に対する恐怖心が高まりまた日本の隣である韓国やベトナムでは戦争が続いていた為常に危険を感じていたからであろう。苦悩や困惑に溢れた日本の社会の中で特に若い日本人たちの間では日本の伝統を受け入れるのを拒否し始めるようになった。よって日本社会は大きな変化をし、特に日本人女性の役割が著しく変化した。
そのことを象徴するかのように1988年に出版され日本文学に革新をもたらした『キッチン』は女性作家の吉本ばななである。吉本ばななは詩人で文学評論家でもある吉本隆明氏の娘である。ばななという名前は吉本氏本人が名づけたものでシンプルであり覚えやすく皮肉的なニュアンスも込めて名づけられた。しかしばななという名前は俳人松尾芭蕉も好んだものであり芭蕉とはバナナの木を意味しており日本においてまた世界中で愛されている俳人にちなんで名づけられた名前なのかもしれない。吉本ばななのなかに出てくる登場人物は特に思春期の女性が多く、困難で悩まされる人生を過ごしているが常に平穏を探し求め心からの平和を願った。『哀しい予感』（1991）の主人公で思春期の弥生、『TUGUMI』（1992）の主人公で美しく残酷な女性、『ハチ公の最後の恋人』（1998）の主人公マオは画家であり第六感の働く持ち主である。これらの作品のなかの女性達からは生きたい力が感じられ孤独を破壊したい思いが多く感じられる。作品の最後には常にこれらの女性達は少し彼女達より幼い男性との間で平和や安らぎを見つけていく。よって吉本ばななの作品にはしばしば子供のいない女性の主人公が登場するが男性と接する時は子を愛する母親でもある。吉本ばななの言葉は漫画に使われている言葉のように若者の話す言葉に近くシンプルで流暢である。言葉のスタイルも映画やテレビを見ているかのように読むだけで画像が浮かんでくる。現代言語を吉本ばななが作品の中に取り入れたとしてもどこかで日本の古典文学を感じることができる。例えば日本の古典文学には風景や季節の移り変わりを読み取ることができる、吉本ばななの『TUGUMI』では景色があたかも目の前に広がっているかのようにイメージできる。吉本ばななの描く夜は主人公の内面をより深く正確に表現しそして夜は登場人物が人と出会い、霊たちが出現する不思議で魅惑的な背景を映し出すときである。これらの霊たちは光に満ちた道やテクノロジーに溢れている東京にも存在している。吉本ばななの作品の中に登場する人物が平穏を探し求め見つけられたかどうかは分からないが、瀬戸内晴美の作品の中の登場人物が平穏を求めたとしたら必ず手にすることができただろう。瀬戸内晴美は川端康成と三島由紀夫の友人であり1973年51歳の時に家族や愛人をおいて出家し、中尊寺 (岩手県)で寂聴と改名し修行することを決めた。瀬戸内寂聴はよくテレビに登場し１ヶ月に１度人々の前で幸福についての講義を行っており日本ではよく知られている存在である。日本の現在の文学はメディアに大きく左右される。自叙伝『比叡』（1979）の主人公である俊子は有名な作家であり既婚者である男性に恋をした、しかし世の中から身を引く為比叡山にある寺へ出家することを決める。出家したことにより本物の幸福を手に入れ苦しむことは一切なかった。また『女徳』（1963）に登場する主人公で芸者の智蓮尼は恋に絶望した後平穏な未来を手に入れた。
最近の本では登場人物たちが平和を求める内容のものが少なくなった。本の内容はその時代時代の日本社会に反映しているように思える。今の日本社会はお金がすごく大切で、流行に流される人々が多くなった。これらの日本の危機を書く小説家の桐野夏生のスタイルはとても冷静であたかも警察での調書のようであり、女性の持つ独特の嫉妬心や復讐心を読み取ることができる。1998年に桐野夏生が書いた『OUT』では、４人の妻たちがそれぞれの夫たちが妻たちに与えた裏切りや虐待に対して復讐を誓い残虐な殺人を実行する。しかしこの４人の妻たちは平和を手に入れることはできず益々大きな痛みと悲しみを背負うことになる。1999年に書かれた『柔らかな頬』では既婚者であるカスミは他の男性と愛人関係になるがその罪滅ぼしなのか娘の有香が謎の失踪をしてしまう。桐野夏生の描く登場人物は道徳と非道徳の隔たりを無効にし、悲劇に満ち幸せとはかけ離れた人生を過ごすのである。
これらの有名な作家たちの後に日本では作家ではない人々が急に本を出版する傾向が見られるようになり内容は性的なものが多い。これらの本は多くの読者に読まれた。
より有名なケースとして現在はタレントとして活躍している元ポルノ女優の飯島愛が書いた『プラトニック・セックス』(2000年)では彼女自身の性的体験や売春時代から両親との仲直りに至るまでそして彼女の幸せな結婚とテレビで活躍するまでの成功の道のりを書いたものである。この本は瀬戸内寂聴の書く幸福に満ちた終わりを冒涜するというよりは皮肉っているように思う。瀬戸内寂聴の描く主人公の女性たちは女性としてこよなく恋人を愛し成功するが最後には全てを捨てて修道女になる事で幸せを得る。しかし飯島愛のプラトニックセックスでは恥ずかしがることなく彼女自身の体験を赤裸々に語り、世の中から身を引くのではなく世間に自分自身の存在をアピールし幸せを見つけ成功する。
日本の文学は女性の手に戻ってきた。なぜ戻ったというのか。それは平安時代に日本の文学を支えた２人の中心人物、紫式部と清少納言は女性であり共に１１世紀初期に生存した。紫式部の代表作の源氏物語は1900年代の有名な作家達が現代の言葉に直し出版する事を幾度となく試みた。谷崎潤一郎は生涯の多くをこの作品の現代化に力を入れ説明書きとより現代語に近い書き換えをし1949年と1964年に出版された。川端康成もこの作品の現代化に挑戦したが残念な事に仕上げることなく他界してしまう。しかし読者たちには谷崎潤一郎や川端康成の源氏物語は多く読まれることは無く1989年の瀬戸内寂聴の書いた『女人源氏物語』が出版されるまでは。瀬戸内寂聴の源氏物語は多くの人々に読まれ特に若い世代の人達が好んで読んだ。理由として使われている言葉が全て現代の言葉に書き換えられており、シンプルで今私たちが使っている日本語そのものだったからでしょう。しかしただそれだけの理由からだろうか？おそらく瀬戸内寂聴の源氏物語は1000年の月日は経ったとしても紫式部と同じ女性として心情やインスピレーションをより忠実に表現できたからではないだろうか。

フロリアーノ・テッラーノ

higashishinbun@aol.com

2008-09-29T16:10:00.003+02:00

Chinese young people

and theatre

.
a difficult dialogue

.
.

Young people and theatre in China nowadays. It’s a difficult dialogue, a quite impossible dialogue. In China, where authority deeply controls people, internet is the most important communications medium used by young people. Chinese young people, like most of all young people in the world, like to log on to use emails, to chat, to play with on-line gaming. They do prefer pc to theatre.

We did a journey through China, from Southern provinces to Beijing and to Shanghai and we asked young people we met if they like drama or not. Their replies surprised us a lot. We had spoken with young people between 19 and 23 not only students but also employees, waitresses etc. Most of them said us internet is the most important of the “visual arts” loved by Chinese young generation. Drama is enjoyed by them only after internet, movies and television.

Wei Xia is responsible for marketing and she works for an American multinational company in Guangzhou, in the South of China, one of the most industrialized areas in the world. Wei prefers to be called with her Western style name “Simone” and tells us she prefers movies to drama. She occasionally goes to the theatre and only when she need to relax. She says: «I watch a play to not think about anything». Movies give her the emotions theatre can’t give her «I like to watch above all contemporary Western plays. Unfortunately the cultural background of Guangzhou is very different from Beijing or Shanghai. Here there are some acting companies which stage good traditional Chinese plays but young people who work till late evening can’t go to the theatre». Simone Wei almost every day stays in office till late and she comes back home only at 10 or 11 p.m. Chinese young people work a lot like her.

How about Beijing? We went to Beijing to know if there are more opportunities for young people to go to the theatre. In Beijing, the Chinese Opera city, it seems paradoxical that Chinese people prefer Western style stage to Chinese traditional theatre. Only Gao, a 20 years old Beijing University student from Shandong, loves Beijing Opera and prefers it to Western pieces staged in the capital’s playhouses. Though it is quite impossible to find a young Chinese person who likes Beijing Opera. Only people in their forties begin to appreciate Chinese Opera. The same happens in Japan and Korea, where young people don’t like traditional theatre. For this reason lots of American style musicals in Chinese or Korean languages were recently put on in China and Korea. Some of them have an unwilled funny side.
Zhang, another 20 years old Beijing University student from Hebei province, prefers Italian Grand Opera to Beijing Opera. He says: «I love Rossini’s “Il Barbiere di Siviglia”. I’ve watched it three times and I desire to go to Italy to watch it again».
Chinese young people like most of all Western playwrights, like Susan Cooper and Agatha Christie. However Miao and Shuo, 21 years old students, love Cáo Yǔ (曹禺, 1910 – 1996), one of the most representative Chinese playwrights of twentieth-century. Cáo Yǔ was one of the forbidden writers during the Maoist Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution and he was partially rehabilitated by Deng Xiaoping. Miao and Shuo like Léiyǔ (雷雨, Thunderstorm, 1933), one of the well-known Cáo Yǔ’s plays inspired by Western theatre and concerning an incest occurrence. Miao and Shuo, like lots of Young Chinese students, read playwrights of huàjù (话剧), the Chinese cultural movement of authors like Chen Duxiu and Hu Shih who harked back to Western dramatists.

Chinese young people are attracted not only to Western style drama but also to Taiwanese, Korean and Japanese stage shows. Yue, a young waitress of a Shanghai bar, comes from Zheijiang province. She has a very special predilection to contemporary Japanese theatre, even if she did watch it live but only on Youtube. Yue is a chain reader of manga, Japanese world-famous comics. She tells us her dream while tidying up bar glasses: «I would like to go to Tokyo to study acting and to become an actress of Takarazuka Revue». Takarazuka (宝塚歌劇団) is a Japanese musical theatre made of actresses only in which the male roles are played by women. For this reason Yue put a Japanese grammar book near the cash register. When in bar there are few customers, she uses to open the book and to study Japanese language. For Chinese young people dreams are plans to fulfil with strength of will and hard work. And Moon, this is the meaning of the name Yue, seems to have yet the personal appeal of "prima donna".

Also in China, one of the last kingdoms to be considered different and far away, young people resemble each other more and more. In the Beijing Opera country Chinese traditional stage shows are rarely watched by young people who, like other global younger generations, prefer hybrid shows made of movies and television together, more comfortable and easy to be found on line than to be watched on stage.

Floriano Terrano

higashishinbun@aol.com